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T      n  -7^ 

d*  Lewey  Jfong 


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OF 

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OF  CALIFORNIA 

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J.   Dewey  Long 


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BENCH  WORK    IN  WOOD 


A  COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  PRACTICE 

DESIGNED    FOR  THE   USE   OF 

SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES 


BY 

W.  F.  M.  GOSS,  M.S.,  D.Eng. 

DEAN  OF  THE  COLLEGE  OF  ENGINEERING,  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS,  URBANA 

FORMERLY    DEAN    OF   THE    SCHOOLS    OF   ENGINEERING 

PURDUE  UNIVERSITY,  LAFAYETTE,  INDIANA 


REVISED  EDITION 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON     •     NEW  YORK     •     CHICAGO     •     LONDON 
ATLANTA     •     DALLAS     •     COLUMBUS     •     SAN  FRANCISCO 

U.CD.  LIRMRY 


Copyright,  1887,  1905,  by 
W.  F.  M.  GOSS 


ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 
615-7 


GINN  AND  COMPANY-  PRO- 
PRIETORS -  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


n 


^ 


i^. 


PREFACE 


TO  avoid  confusion,  the  subject  herein  treated  is  con- 
sidered in  three  divisions.  Part  I.  contains  the  essen- 
tial facts  concerning  common  bench  tools  for  wood ;  it 
describes  their  action,  explains  their  adjustments,  and  shows 
how  they  may  be  kept  in  order.  Part  II.  presents  a  course 
of  practice  by  which  ability  to  use  the  tools  may  be  ac- 
quired ;  and  Part  III.  discusses  such  forms  and  adaptations 
of  joints  as  will  meet  the  requirements  of  ordinary  construc- 
tion.    It  is  not  expected  that  the  student  will  complete  Part 

I.  before  entering  upon  Part  II.,  or  that  he  will  finish  Part 

II.  before  commencing  Part  III.  He  will  find  greater  profit 
in  using  them  together.  For  example,  a  shop  exercise  involv- 
ing the  chisel  (Part  II.)  should  be  accompanied  or  preceded 
by  a  study  of  the  chisel  (Part  I.)  ;  again,  the  various  forms 
of  mortise-and-tenon  joints  (Part  III.)  will  be  better  under- 
stood and  more  easily  remembered,  if  considered  during  the 
time  when  types  of  such  joints  are  under  construction  in  the 
shops  (Part  11.) .  In  the  writer's  experience  with  classes  of 
students,  one  hour  has  been  given  to  class-room  work  for  every 
five  hours  given  to  shop  work.  By  this  apportionment,  Parts 
I.  and  III.  can  be  mastered  in  the  class-room  while  Part  II. 
is  in  progress  in  the  shops. 

The   equipment  necessary  for  carrying  out  the  course   of 


PREFACEo 


practice  given  in  Part  II.  is  much  less  expensive  than  may  at 
first  appear.  Besides  a  bench,  a  pair  of  trestles,  and  a  bench- 
hook,  the  following-named  tools  are  needed  :  — 


I  2-ft.  Rule. 

I  24-inch  Ripping-Saw,  6  teeth. 

I  Framing-Square. 

I   lo-inch  Back-Saw. 

I  7-inch  Try-Square. 

I  8-inch  Drawing- Knife. 

I  8-inch  Bevel. 

I  Fore-Plane. 

2  8-inch  Marking-Gauges. 

I  Jack- Plane. 

I  Chalk- Line,  with  Chalk. 

I   Smooth-Plane. 

I  Lead-Pencil. 

I  Set  Auger-Bits,  |"   to   i"  by 

I  Scriber. 

i6ths. 

.  Firmer-Chisels,  i  each,  i", 

I  Bit-Brace. 

f",  1",  f",  !",  i''.  and  li". 

I  Brad-Awl. 

Gouges,  I  each,  f ",  i",  f ",  and 

I  Carpenter's  Hammer. 

i". 

I   Mallet. 

I  22-inch    Cross-cutting-Saw, 

8 

I   Nail-Sot. 

teeth. 

I  Oilstone. 

I  pair  8-inch  Dividers. 

I   Hand-Scraper. 

I  pair  |-inch  Matching-Planes. 

I  doz.  Quill  Bits,  assorted  from  J" 

I  y\-inch  Beading-Plane. 

down. 

I  ^-inch  Beading-Plane. 

I   Miter-Box. 

I  Plow. 

I  Grindstone. 

If  provision  is  to  be  made  for  more  than  one  student,  the 
items  printed  in  small  type  need  not  be  duplicated.  One  set 
of  these  will  suffice  for  any  number  less  than  thirty. 

The  writer  is  indebted  to  Mr.  M.  Golden,  of  the  School 
of  Mechanics  and  Engineering,  Purdue  University,  for  the  exe- 
cution of  many  of  the  drawings  and  for  valuable  suggestions. 

W.  F.  M.  G. 
Purdue  University, 
LafayettCy  Ind. 
1887 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION 


In  the  preparation  of  this  edition  the  text  has  been  revised 
and  a  new  section  deaUng  with  timber  and  its  preparation  for 
use  has  been  added.  This  appears  as  Part  IV  and,  in  common 
with  Parts  I  and  III,  is  designed  for  use  in  connection  with  the 
course  of  practice  outHned  in  Part  II.  Use  has  been  made  of 
Snow's  "  Principal  Species  of  Wood,"  from  which  several  of  the 
illustrations  of  Part  IV  have  been  taken  or  adapted,  and  also 
of  certain  publications  of  the  United  States  government,  espe- 
cially those  prepared  by  Professor  C.  S.  Sargent  and  Dr.  B.  E. 
Fernow. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION.  —  INTERPRETATION    OF 
MECHANICAL   DRAWINGS. 

PAGES 

I .  Mechanical  Drawings  Defined.  —  2.  Plans.  —  3.  Elevations.  — 
4.  Method  of  showing  Parts  Obscured  from  Sight.  —  5.  Sections. 
Section  Lines.  Cross-hatching.  Incomplete  Sections.  —  6.  Bro- 
ken Drawings.  —  7.  Scale.  —  8.  Dimensions.    Dimension  Lines,     1-6 


PART    I.  — BENCH    TOOLS. 

9.    Bench. —  10.    Bench-Stop. —  ii.   Vise. —  12.    Bench-Hook.— 

13.  Trestles 7-9 

Measuring  and  Lining  Appliances. 

14.  Early  Standards  of  Length. —  15.  English  Standard  Yard.  —  16. 
United  States  Standard  of  Length.  —  17.  The  Troughton  Scale. 
— 18.  Rules.— 19.  Framing-Square.  —  20.  Board-measure  Table. 

—  21.  Brace-measure  Table.  —  22.  Try-Square.  —  23.  Bevel.  — 
24.  "Miter-Square."  —  25.  Try-and-" Miter  "  Square. —  26.  Di- 
viders. —  27.  Scribing  with  Dividers.  —  28.  Combining  Square 
and  Rule.  —  29.  Combining  Square  and  Bevel.  —  30.  Setting 
the  Bevel  at  an  Angle  of  60  Degrees.  —  31.  Setting  the  Bevel  at 
any  Given  Angle.  —  32.  Marking-Gauge.  —  33.  Mortise-Gauge. 

—  34.   Panel-Gauge.  —  35.    Cutting-Gauge.  —  36.    Chalk-Line. 

—  37.   Scriber.  —  38.    Pencil 9-20 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 


Chisels  and  Chisel-like  Tools. 

39.  Firmer-Chisels.  —  40.  Framing-Chisels.  —  41.  Corner-Chisels.— 
42.  Gouges.  —  43.  Chisel  Handles.  —  44.  Drawing-Knife. — 45. 
Action  of  Cutting  Wedges.  —  46.  Angle  of  Cutting  Wedge  in 
Chisel  and  Gouge.  —  47.  Grinding.  —  48.  Whetting     ,     ,     .     20-26 

Saws. 

49.  Efficiency. —  50.  Form.  —  51.  Set.  —  52.  Size  of  Teeth.  —  53. 
Ripping-Saw  and  Cross-Cutting-Saw  Defined.  —  54.  Teeth  of 
Ripping-Saws.  —  55.  Teeth  of  Cross-Cutting-Saws.  —  56.  Back- 
Saw.  —  57.  Compass-Saw 26-36 

Appliances  for  Filing  and  Setting  Saws. 

58.    Files.  —  59.  Sets  for  Bending  the  Tooth. —  60.  Sets  for  Swedging 

theTooth.  —  61.  Clamps 36-38 

Saw  Filing  and  Setting. 
62    Top-Jointing.  —  63.  Setting.  —  64.  Filing.  —  65.  Side-Jointing,  39-41 

Planes  and  Plane-like  Tools. 

66.  Description  of  Planes.  —  67.  Length  of  Stock.  —  68.  Plane-Iron. 
Angle  of  Cutting  Wedge.  —  69.  Outline  of  Cutting  Edge.  — -  70. 
Use  of  Different  Bench  Planes.  —  71.  Action  of  Smooth- Plane 
and  Fore- Plane  Compared.  —  72.  The  Cap.  —  73.  Narrowness  of 
Mouth. —  74.  Adjusting  the  Iron. —  75.  Jointing  a  Plane.  —  76. 
Iron  Planes.  —  77.  Planes  of  Wood  and  Iron  Combined. —  78. 
Circular-Planes. —  79.  Block-Planes.  —  80.  Spokeshaves.  —  81. 
Rabbeting- Planes.  —  82.  Matching- Planes.  —  83.  Hollows  and 
Rounds.  —  84.  Beading-Planes.  —  85.  Plows.  —  86.  Combina- 
tion Planes.  —  87.   Scrapers 41-52 

Boring  Tools. 

88.  Augers.  —  89.  Auger-Bits.  —  90.  Sharpening  Augers  and  Auger- 
Bits. —  91.  Center-Bits.  —  92.  Expansive  Bits.  —  93.  Small  Bits. 
—  94.  Bit-Braces.  —  95.  Angular  Bit-Stock.  —  96.  Automatic 
Boring  Tool 53-59 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PAGBS 

Miscellaneous  Tools. 

97.  Winding-Sticks.— 98.  Hand  Screw-Driver. — 99.  Brace  Screw- 
Driver.  —  100.  Hammer.  —  loi.  Hatchet.  —  102.  Mallet.  — 
103.  Sana-Paper.  —  104.  Wooden  Miter-Box.  —  105.  Iron 
Miter-Box.  —  106.  Clamps.  —  107.  Grindstone.  —  108.  Use  of 
Water  on  a  Grindstone.  —  109.  Truing  a  Grindstone.  —  1 10. 
Truing  Devices  for  Grindstones. —  III.  Oilstones. —  112.  Oil 
for  Oilstones.  —  113.  Form  of  Oilstones.  —  114.  Oilstone  Slips. 
—  115.  Truing  an  Oilstone 59-69 


PART  II.  — BENCH   WORK. 

116.  Good  Lines  a  Necessity.  —  1 1 7.    Location  of  Points. —  118. 

Jointed  Face. —  119.  Working- Face 7^-73 

EXERCISE  No.  i.  —  Measuring  and  Lining. 

120.  Material. —  121.  Spacing:  Pencil  and  Rule.  —  122.  Lining: 
Pencil,  and  Framing-Square. —  123.  Chalk-Lining. —  124.  Lin- 
ing: Pencil, and  Try-Square.  —  125.  Lining:  Pencil  and  Bevel. 
—  126.  "Gauging"  Lines:  Pencil  and  Rule. —  127.  Spacing: 
Scriber  and  Rule.  —  1 28.  Lining :  Scriber,  and  Try-Square. 
129.  Lining:  Scriber  and  Bevel.  —  130.  Gauge-Lining.  —  131. 
Lining  for  Exercise  No.  3 73-79 

EXERCISE  No.  2.  —  Chiseling  and  Gouging. 

132.  Chiseling  by  Hand.  —  133.  Chiseling  by  Use  of  Mallet —  134. 

Gouging 80-83 

EXERCISE  No.  3.  — Sawing. 

135.  Handling  the  Saw. —  136.  Guiding  the  Saw.  —  137.  Correct- 
ing the  Angle  of  the  Cut. —  138.  Rip-Sawing. —  139.  Cross- 
cutting  83-86 

EXERCISE  No.  4.  —  Planing. 

140.  Handling  the  Plane. —  I41.  Why  a  Plane  Clogs.  —  142.  Joint- 
ing. — 143.  Planing  to  a  Square.  —  144.  Method  of  Performing 


CONTENTS. 


Similar  Operations.  —  145.    Smooth  Surfaces.  —  146.    Sand- 
Papering   86-91 

EXERCISE  No.  5.  — Box. 

147.  Jointing  to  Width.  —  148.  Sawing  to  Length.  —  149.  Nailing. 
—  150.  Hammer  Marks. —  151.  Setting  Nails. —  152.  With- 
drawing Nails. —  153.  Fastening  the  Box  Bottom.  Finishing 
the  Box.  —  154.  Planing  End  Grain  .         91-96 

EXERCISE  No.  6.  —  Bench-Hook. 
155.  lining  and  Sawing. —  156.  Using  the  Auger-Bit     .     .         .    96-98 

EXERCISE  No.  7.  — Halved  Splice. 

157.  Lining. —  158.  Value  of  Working-Face  Illustrated. —  159.  Cut- 
ting the  Joint.  —  160.  Sawing  a  Fit.  —  161.  Toeing  Nails   ,   99-102 

EXERCISE  No.  8.  — Splayed  Splice. 
162.  Lining.  —  163,  Cutting  and  Finishing  the  Joint  .     .     .     .     103,104 

EXERCISE  No.  9  —  Simple  Mortise-and-Tenon  Joint. 

164.  Lining. —  165.  Cutting  the  Mortise. —  166.  Cutting  the  Tenon. 

167.  Making  a  Pin. —  168.  Drawboring 104-110 

EXERCISE  No.  10.  —  Keyed  Mortise-and-Tenon  Joint. 
169.  Lining  and  Cutting. —  170.  Key 110,111 

EXERCISE  No.  11.  — Plain  Dovetail. 

171.  Lining  and  Cutting. —  172.  Gluing.  —  173.  Short  Method  of 

Lining  and  Cutting  the  Joint ..112,113 

EXERCISE  No.  12.  — Lap  Dovetail. 
174.  Lining  and  Cutting 114,115 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PAGES 

EXERCISE  No.  13. —  Blind  Dovetail. 
175.  Lining  and  Cutting.  —  176.  A  Modified  Form  of  the  Joint  .   115-117 

EXERCISE  No.  14. —  Frame  and  Panel. 

177.  Panel  Door  Described.  —  178.  Making  the  Joint  between  Stile 
and  Rail.  —  179.  Cutting  Chamfers.  —  180.  Keying  the  Joint. 
— 181.  Finishing  the  Panel.  Fastening  Panel  to  Frame.— 
182.  Inserting  Screws.  —  183.  Using  the  Brad- Awl     .     .     117-121 

EXERCISE  No.  15.— Frame  and  Panel. 

184.  Making  Joint  between  Stile  and  Rail.— 185.  Plowing.— 186. 

Beading. — 187.  Forming  the  Panel 121-124 


PART    III.  — ELEMENTS    OF    WOOD    CON- 
STRUCTION. 

CARPENTRY. 

188.  Work  of  Carpenter  and  Joiner  Compared.  — 189.  Compres- 
sional,  Tensional,  and  Transverse  Stress  Defined. — 190.  Effect 
of  Transverse  Stress.  Neutral  Axis.  Relation  between  the 
Depth  of  a  Timber  and  its  Resistance  to  Transverse  Stress. 
—  191.  Rankine's  Principles  concerning  Joints  and  Fasten- 
ings           125-128 

Joints  Connecting  Timbers  in  the  Direction  of  their  Length. 

192.  Lapped  Joint.  —  193.  Fished  Joint.  — 194.  Scarfed  Joints. — 
195.  Scarfed  Joint  for  Resisting  Compression.  —  196.  Scarfed 
Joint  for  Resisting  Tension.  —  1 97.  Scarfed  Joint  for  Resisting 
Transverse  Stresses.  —  198.  Scarfed  Joint  for  Resisting  Ten- 
sion and  Compression.  — 199.  Scarfed  Joint  for  Resisting 
Tension  and  Transverse  Stress 1 28-1 31 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

PAGES 

Joints  Connecting  Timbers  at  Right  Angles. 

200.  Halving.  —  201.  Notching.  —  202.  Cogging.  —  203.  Mortise- 
and-Tenon  Joints.  —  204.  Mortise  and  Tenon  Joining  a  Vertical 
to  a  Horizontal  Timber.  —  205.  Mortise  and  Tenon  Joining 
a  Horizontal  to  a  Vertical  Timber.  —  206.  Mortise  and  Tenon 
Joining  One  Horizontal  Timber  to  Another.    Tusk  Tenon  131 -135 


Miscellaneous  Joints. 

207.  Oblique  Mortise  and  Tenon.  —  208.  Bridle  Joint.  —  209.  Tie 

Joint.  —  210.  Chase  Mortise *35-i37 


JOINERY. 

211.  Joinery  Described 137 

Beads  and  Moldings. 

212.  Beads. —  213.  Use  of  Beads.  —  214.  Chamfer.  —  215.  Stop 
Chamfer.  —  216.  Moldings  Described.  —  217.  Round  Nose. — 
218.  Some  Typical  Forms  of  Moldings.     Fillet.  —  219.  Joints 

in  Joinery  Defined 138-140 


Heading-Joints,  or  Joints  Uniting  Pieces  in  the  Direction  of 
THEIR  Length. 

220.  Square  Heading- Joint.     Splayed  Heading- Joint 141 


Joints  Uniting  Pieces  in  Direction  of  their  Width. 

221.  Their  Office.  —  222.  Butt  Joint.  Filleted  Joint.  Rabbeted 
Joint.  Matched  Joint. —  223.  Glued  Butt  Joint. —  224.  Cleat- 
ing.  —  225.  Side  Cleats.  —  226.  End  Cleats.  —  227.  Relieving 
Cleats  from  Strain 141-144 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 


Joints  Uniting  Pieces  at  Right  Angles. 

228.  Butt  Joint.  —  229.  Miter  Joint.  —  230.  Strengthening  of  Miter 
Joints.  —  231.  Dovetail  Joints.  —  232.  Proportions  of  Mortise- 
and-Tenon  Joints.  —  233.  Single  and  Double  Tenons.  —  234. 
Haunching. —  235.  Four  Tenons. —  236.  Mortises  and  Tenons 
at  an  Angle  in  the  Work.  —  237.  Modifications  of  Mortise-and- 
Tenon  Joints 144-148 

Paneling. 

238.  Panel.  —  239.     Frame.  —  240.     Joints    between    Panel    and 

Frame 148-151 

FASTENINGS. 

241,  Pins.  —  242.  Wedges.  —  243.  Blind-Wedging.  —  244.  Keys. — 
245.  Dowels. —  246.  Nails.  —  247.  Size  of  Nails. —  248.  Brads. 
—  249.  Tacks.  —  250.  Screws.  —  251.  Glue 151-157 


PART  IV.— TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION 
FOR  USE. 

Timber. 

252.  Timber. —  253.     Structure   of    Wood. —  254.    Markings    of 

Wood.  —  255.  Adaptability  of  Various  Woods      .     .     .     158-166 

Characteristics  of  Typical  Timber-Yielding  Trees. 

256.  Classification  of  Trees.  —  257.  Exogens. —  258.  Effect  of  En- 
vironment.—  259.  Broad-Leaved  Woods.  —  260.  Oak.  —  261. 
White  Oak. —  262.  Red  Oak. —  263.  Maple.  —  264.  Sugar 
Maple.  —  265.  Silver  or  White  Maple.  —  266.  Black  Walnut. 
—  267.  Yellow  Poplar.  —  268.  Beech.  —  269.  Ash.  —  270.  White 
Ash.  —  271.  Needle-Leaved  Woods. —  272.  Pine.  —  273.  White 


XIV  CONTENTS. 


Pine.  —  274.    Long-Leaved  Pine.  —  275.    Short-Leaved  Pine. 

—  276.  Loblolly  Pine.  —  277.  Bull  Pine.  —  278.  The  Spruces. 

—  279.  Black  Spruce.  —  280.  White  Spruce.  —  281.  Hemlock. 

—  282.  Eastern  Hemlock.  —  283.  Western  Hemlock.  —  284. 
Bald  Cypress.  —  285.  The  Common  Redwood.  —  286.  The 
Big-Tree  Variety  of  Redwood 166-182 

Logging. 

287.  Felling  Timber.  —  288.  Transportation  of  Logs.  —  289.  Saw- 
mills.—  290.  Process  of  Sawing.  —  291.  Milling.  —  292.  Wa- 
ter in  Timber.  —  293.  Process  of  Seasoning.  —  294.  Air 
Seasoning.  —  295.    Steam  Drying.  —  296.    Water  Seasoning. 

—  297.  Kiln  Drying.  —  298.  Kilns.  —  299.  Shrinkage.  —  300. 
Swelling.  —  301.  Warping.  —  302.  Decay  in  Wood.  —  303. 
Timber  Preservation.  —  304.  Creosoting 182-198 

Strength  of  Timber. 

305.  Strength  of  Timber.  —  306.  Strength  in  Tension.  —  307. 
Strength  in  Compression.  —  308.  Strength  in  Shear.  —  309. 
Strength  under  Transverse  Loads 198-200 


INTRODUCTION. 


3>*;< 


wu 


another  set  of 


INTERPRETATION    OF   MECHANICAL  DRAWINGS. 

I.  Most  of  the  illustrations  presented  with  the  following 
chapters  are  in  the  form  of  Mechanical  Drawings.  To  the 
novice,  these  may  appear  confusing ;  but  careful  attention  to 
some  of  the  principles  underlying  their  con- 
struction will  enable  him  readily  to  interpret 
their  meaning. 

A  mechanical  drawing,  as  distinguished  from 
a  perspective  drawing,  or  picture,  instead  of 
giving  all  the  characteristics  of  an  object  at  a 
glance,  presents  them  in  detail,  giving  in  one 
view  one  set  of  elements,  in  another  view 
elements,  and  so  on,  until  the  form  of  the  ob- 
ject is  accurately  defined. 

For  example,  Fig.  i  is  a  perspective  view 
of  an  object  which  is  represented  mechanically 
by  Fig.  2.  By  Fig.  i  it  will  at  once  be  seen 
that  the  object  represented  is  a  cylinder.  In 
Fig.  2  there  is  first  presented  a  />/an,  showing 
that  the  object  is  cylindrical;  and,  secondly, 
an  elevation,  showing  the  height  of  the  cylinder. 
From  the  combination  of  these  two  views,  the 
solid  may  be  as  easily  imagined  as  from  Fig.  i, 
and  the  knowledge  obtained  of  it  is  much  more 
definite. 

A  perspective  view  of  an  object  is  that  which         elevation. 
is  had  by  looking  from  some  one  point,  as  A,  Fig.  3,  while  a 
view  represented  by  a  mechanical  drawing  supposes  the  ob- 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


server  to  be  looking  from  an  infinite  number  of  points,  and 
always  in  parallel  lines,  as  indicated  by  A,  Fig.  4. 

2.   A  Plan  of  any  object  ^ig-  3 

represents  it  as  it  would 
appear  if,  standing  on  its 
natural  base,  it  were  looked 
down  upon  vertically,  as 
indicated  by  the  arrows  A, 
Fig.  5.  If  the  object,  as  a  rectangular  block,  has  no  fixed 
base,  any  one  of  its  faces  may  be  taken  as  such. 


Fig.  4 


TTig.  r 


B 


3.   An  Elevation  of  any  object  represents  it  as  it  would 

appear  if,  standing  on  its  natural  base,  it  were  looked  upon  in  a 

^.^  horizontal  direction,  as  indicated  by 

arrows  B,  Fig.  5. 

The    elevation    is    always   at    right 
angles  to  the  plan.      There  may  be 

[several  elevations  of  the  same  object, 
III  '    J  each  differing  from  the  others  as  the 

point  of  observation  changes.  For 
example,  the  plan  and  elevation  of  the  object  rep- 
resented by  Fig.  6,  are  usually  made  as  shown  by 
Fig.  7,  but  they  may  be  made  as  shown  by  Fig.  8  or 
Fig.  9. 


ELEVATION. 

FACE   B. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Fig.  9 


These  angular  views,  indeed,  cannot  be  avoided  when  the  form 
they  represent  is  so  comphcated  that  its  faces  are  neither  par- 
allel, nor  at  right  angles  to  each 
other.  Fig.  lo  is  a  perspective 
view  of  an  object  which  is  repre- 
sented mechanically  by  Fig.  ii. 
It  is  evident  that  if  one  face  of  A 
is  shown  in  the  elevation,  two 
faces  of  B  will  appear;  if  one 
face  of  B  is  shown,  two  of  A  will 
appear. 

In  the  representation  of  simple 
objects,  the  plan  is  in  some  cases 
omitted,  and  two  elevations  em- 
ployed.    These  may  be  designated  as  side  elevation  and  end 
elevation,  which  terms   signify  an  elevation  of  a  side  and  an 
elevation   of  an   end.      For 

P^iir.  lO 

example,  if  we  consider  the 

surface  A  the  base  of  Fig.  6, 

a  side   elevation   would    be 

equivalent   to   the  elevation 

Fig.  7,  and  the  end  elevation 

would  become  equivalent  to 
the  plan  of  the  same  figure. 

4.  Method  of  showing  Parts  obscured  from 
Sight.  —  The  outline  of  details,  which  in  any 
view  of  an  object  are  hidden,  is  frequently 
shown  by  dotted  lines.  Thus,  in  Fig.  12,  the 
general  outline  of  the  plan  and  elevation  shows  a  rectangular 
block ;  if  the  circle  in  the  plan  is  associated  with  the  dotted 
lines  in  the  elevation,  it  is  not  difficult  to  imagine  a  round  hole 
extending  through  the  center  of  the  block.  If  the  hole  pene- 
trates to  only  half  the  depth  of  the  block,  dotted  lines  will  be 
placed  as  shown  by  Fig.  13;    if  the  hole  is  larger  at  the  top 


Ti'ig.  11 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


than  at  the  bottom,  the  drawing  will  appear  as  shown  by  Fig.  14 ; 
if  smaller  at  the  top,  as  shown  by  Fig.  15.     In  Fig.  16  dotted 


Kig^  IS 


Kis.13 


Fig.  14 


Fig.  IS 


EL 

LVATli 

i — 1 

— r  ■      1 

i        j 

L 

.ELEVATION. 

\            1 

eleVat/on, 

/   \ 

L _\ 

ELEVATION. 

TTig.  IG 

fni . 


lines  indicate  the  diameter  of  a  bolt  holding  the  two  pieces  A 
and  B  together. 

5.    Sections.  —  In  compHcated  drawings,  the  use  of  dotted 
lines  to  indicate  hidden  parts  is  more  confusing  than  helpful. 
In  such  cases  it  is  customary  to  imagine  the 
object  cut,  as  if  it  were  sawed  asunder,  and 
^    the  surface  thus  produced  exposed.     Such 
a  surface  is  called  a  "  section." 

Complete  sections  show  not  only  the  sur- 
face produced  by  the  cut,  but  the  outline  of  other  portions  of 
the  object  which  may  be  seen  beyond.     See  lines  a,  «,  Fig.  17. 

Thus,  section  AB,  Fig.  1 7,  is  that  which 
would  appear  if  the  ring  were  to  be  cut  on 
the  line  AB  (Plan,  Fig.  17),  and  the  cut 
surface  made  to  appear  in  elevation. 

Section  lines  on  a  drawing  show  the  loca- 
tion of  sections.  They  are  usually  made  in 
color  (red  or  blue),  or  in  dotted  black,  with 
a  colored  line  on  each  side.  Each  section 
is  designated  by  the  letters  of  its  section  line. 


Sec.  A  B 


INTRODUCTION. 


Cross-hatching  is  a  term  applied  to  the  uniformly  spaced 
parallel  lines  which  are  employed  to  indicate  the  cut  surface 
of  a  section.     See  Fig.  i8. 

Different  pieces  of  material  appearing  in  the 
same  section  are  cross-hatched  at  different 
angles,  as  in  Fig.  19,  which  represents  a  cross- 
section  of  a  lead-pencil ;  and  different  kinds  of 
material  are  frequently  indicated  by  cross-hatch- 
ing in  different  colors. 

Incomplete  sections  show  only  the  cut  surface,  to  the 

exclusion  of  all  other  portions  of  the  object.     It  is 

common  to  place  such  sections  on  the  section  hues, 

and  omit  the  letters.     See  Fig,  20. 

A  single  view  of  a  symmetrical  object  may  be  made  partly 

in  section,  and  partly  in  elevation,  as  in  the  drawing  of  the 

goblet,  Fig.  21. 


SECTION   A    B.    FIG. 


li'iS.  10 


Fi 


...oD 


6.  Broken  Drawings.  —  To  economize 
space  in  representations  of  simple  objects,  a 
portion  of  the  drawing 
is  sometimes  omitted. 
In  such  cases,  that  which 
is  given  indicates  the 
character  of  the  omitted 
portion,  and  the  dimen- 
sion figures  show  its  ex- 
tent. An  example  is 
given  in  Fig.  22. 


Kig.  SI 


ELEVATION.  SECTION 


7.  Scale.  —  Drawings  are  made  either  "full-sized"  or  "to 
scale."  A  full-sized  drawing  is  one  in  which  every  dimension 
agrees  exactly  with  the  similar  dimension  of  the  object  it  repre- 
sents. A  drawing  to  scale  is  one  in  v/hich  every  dimension 
bears  the  same  fractional  relation  to  the  similar  dimension  of 
the  object  it  represents.     When  a  drawing  is  ^th  the  size  of 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


the  object,  it  is  said  to  be  on  a  scale  of  ^  inch  to  the  foot,  or, 
as  frequently  written,  |^  in.  =  i  ft. ;  if  -^th  the  size,  as  2  in.  =  i  ft., 
and  so  on.  The  scale  6  in.  =  1  ft.  is  often  expressed  as  "half 
size." 

8.    Dimensions.  — The  various  dimensions  of  an  object  repre- 
sented are  shown  on  the  drawing  by  appropriate  figures,  which 
express  feet  when  followed  by  ',  and  inches 
when  followed  by  ".     Thus  2'  should  be  read 
as  two  feet,  and  2"  as  two  inches.     12'  yf"  is 

the  same  as  twelve  feet  and  seven  and  three- 
quarters  inches. 

The  figures  always  show  the  dimensions  of  the  thing  repre- 
sented ;  they  do  not  agree  with  the  dimensions  of  the  drawing 
except  when  the  latter  is  full-sized.  See  dimension  figures  in 
Fig.  23.    , 


^^■i 


2f ».. 


Dimension  lines. — Dimension  figures  are  always  placed  on,  or 
near,  lines  along  which  they  apply.  In  drawings  these  lines  are 
usually  in  color  (red),  but  may  be  dotted  black,  as  in  Fig.  23. 
When  convenient,  they  are  placed  within  the  outHne  of  the 
drawing ;  but  if  the  drawing  is  small  or  crowded,  they  are  placed 
at  one  side,  and  are  connected  with  the  parts  they  limit  by  per- 
pendicular, colored  or  dotted  lines.  Two  arrow-heads,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  dimension  figure,  locate  the  points  between 
which  it  applies.  Several  dimensions  may  be  given  on  the  same 
line,  each  being  Hmited  by  its  own  arrow-heads. 


PART  I. 


3j#iC 


BENCH    TOOLS. 

9.  Bench. — A  simple  form  of  bench  is  shown  by  Fig.  24. 
Its  length  A  may  vary  from  6'  upwards,  according  to  the  length 
of  work  to  be  done.  Its  height  B  should  also  be  regulated  by 
the  character  of  the  work  —  high  for  light  work,  and  low  for 
heavy  —  as  well  as  by  the  height  of  the  person  who  is  to  use  it. 
Carpenters'  benches  are  usually  about  ;^;^"  high,  while  those  of 
cabinet  and  pattern  makers  are  from  2"  to  4"  higher. 


n 


Wis-  S4: 


p^ 


le-—  (J ^ 

END  ELEVATION. 


sfiik^   ^'^k^r^Smt^'^i^i^^^p^^ 


^ 

SIDE    ELEVATION. 


The  surface  of  the  bench,  particularly  of  the  thick  plank  that 
forms  the  outer  edge  of  it,  should  be  perfectly  flat  —  a  true 
plane.  When  in  use,  care  must  be  taken  to  protect  it  from 
injury.  It  should  never  be  scarred  by  the  chisel  or  cut  by  the 
saw.     If  oiled  and  shellaced,  it  is  likely  to  be  better  kept. 

10.  The  Bench-Stop  a  is  intended  to  hold  the  work  while 
it  is  being  planed.  It  may  be  simply  a  piece  of  wood  about 
2"x  2",  projecting  through  a  mortise  in  the  top  of  the  bench; 


8 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


Fis. 


.Fig.  SG 


but  it  is  far  better  to  have  some  form  of  iron  fitting,  many  of 
which  are  supplied  by  the  trade.  The  char- 
acteristics of  all  of  them  are  well  illustrated 
by  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  25.  The  frame 
A  is  let  into  the  bench  even  with  its  sur- 
face. The  hook  C  is  held  in  position  at 
any  height  above  the  bench  by  the  action 
of  the  screw  B.  C  may  be  fastened  even 
with  the  surface  of  the  bench,  or  removed 
entirely. 
II.  The  Vise  d,  Fig.  24,  is  of  a  form  that,  for  general  pur- 
poses, has  long  been  in  use.  To  hold  the  work  well,  the  jaw  d 
should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  parallel  to  the  face  g,  against 
which  it  acts.     If  it  is  not  parallel,  the  space  between  should 

be  less  at  the  top  than  at  the  bot- 
tom—  an  arrangement  which  in- 
sures a  much  better  grip  upon  the 
work  than  the  opposite  conditions. 
Adjustments  for  parallelism  are 
made  by  changing  the  pin  c  from 
one  hole  to  another.  Iron  vises 
can  now  be  had  which  are  adapted 
to  the  same  uses  with  the  one  just 
described  ;  they  can  be  quickly  adjusted,  they  are  so  designed 
that  the  clamping  faces  always  maintain  their  parallelism,  and 
being  stiffer  than  wooden  vises,  they  can  be  depended  upon  to 
hold  work  more  securely. 

An  iron  bench  vise,  such  as  is  shown  by  Fig.  26,  is  extremely 
useful  for  small  work,  and,  if  expense  is  not  to  be  considered, 
should  supplement  the  vise  d,  in  which  case  it  may  be  located 
on  the  bench  at  H. 

The  holes,  e,  in  the  bench  are  for  the  reception  of  a  plug, 
which  may  be  used  to  support  one  end  of  a  long  piece  of  work 
while  the  other  end  is  held  by  the  vise. 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


12.  A  Bench-Hook,  Fig.  178,  applied  to  the  bench  as 
shown  by  Fig.  167,  provides  a  stop  to  prevent  work  from 
shding  across  the  bench.  The  flat  faces  which  rest  on  the 
bench  and  receive  the  work,  should  be  true  planes  and  par- 
allel. A  length  of  from  14"  to  16"  is  convenient,  though 
bench -workers  frequently  have  several  of  different  lengths. 

13.  Trestles,  or  "horses,"  are  used  in  various  ways  to  sup- 
port material,  and  also 
to  take  the  place  of  the 
bench  when  large  pieces 
of  material  are  to  be 
operated  upon.  A  con- 
venient form  is  shown 
by  Fig.  27. 


Measuring  and  Lining  Appliances. 

14.  Early  Standards  of  Length. — To  meet  the  earliest 
need  of  units  of  measure,  it  was  natural  to  adopt  the  means 
nearest  at  hand,  and  common  consent,  no  doubt,  brought  into 
use  the  pace,  the  forearm,  or  cubit,  the  foot,  the  hand,  the  nail, 
etc.  These  were  certainly  convenient  enough,  for  wherever  he 
might  go,  every  individual  carried  his  units  of  measure  with  him. 
Variations  in  their  length,  however,  were  inevitable,  and  many 
attempts  were  made  to  reduce  them  to  a  standard.  An  old 
English  statute,  the  substance  of  which  has  descended  to 
American  arithmetics  of  modern  date,  enacts  "that  three 
barleycorns,  round  and  dry,  make  an  inch,  twelve  inches  make 
a  foot,  three  feet  a  yard,  etc. ;  and  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt 
that  this  mode  of  obtaining  a  standard  was  actually  resorted  to. 
But  setting  aside  the  objection  due  to  the  varying  size  of  the 
individual  grains,  —  unless  the  average  of  a  large  number  be 
taken,  —  it  is  so  difficult  to  know  how  much  of  the  sharp  end 
of  a  grain  of  barley  must  be  removed  to  make  it  '  round,'  that 


lO  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

the  definition  is  not  of  much  value.  Nevertheless,  in  spite 
of  numerous  attempts  at  legislation  on  the  subject,  this,  down 
to  the  year  1824,  was  the  only  process  by  which  the  standard 
yard  of  this  country  [England]  could,  if  lost,  be  legally  re- 
covered." ^ 

Previous  to  the  institution  of  a  national  standard  of  length 
in  Great  Britain,  influential  men  and  prominent  societies  pro- 
vided themselves  with  so-called  standards,  which  were  accepted 
and  used  in  different  localities.  By  comparison  with  many  of 
these,  the  present  standard  of  length  was  made,  and  its  length 
defined  by  law  as  the  British  standard  yard.  From  this,  about 
fifty  copies  have  been  made.  Two  of  these  copies  were  in  1855 
sent  to  the  United  States,  and  have  since  been  in  the  keeping 
of  the  Coast  Survey.     They  are  described  as  follows  :  — 

15.  "  Each  standard  of  length  is  a  solid  bar  38  inches  long 
and  I  inch  square,  in  transverse  section.  One  inch  from  each 
extremity  a  cylindrical  well,  one-half  inch  in  diameter,  is  sunk 
one-half  inch  below  the  surface.  At  the  bottom  of  the  wells, 
in  each  bar,  is  a  gold  pin  about  o.i  inch  in  diameter,  upon 
which  are  drawn  three  transversal  and  two  longitudinal  lines. 
The  wells  are  protected  by  metal  caps.  The  length  of  one 
EngHsh  yard  at  a  specified  temperature  is  defined  by  the  dis- 
tance from  the  middle  transversal  line  in  one  well  to  the  middle 
transversal  line  in  the  other,  using  the  parts  of  those  lines  which 
are  midway  between  the  longitudinal  fines."  ^ 

16.  The  United  States  Standard  of  Length.  —  "  The  stand- 
ard yard  of  Great  Britain  was  lawful  in  the  colonies  before 
1776.  By  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  the  Congress 
is  charged  with  fixing  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures, 
but  no  such  enactment  has  ever  been  made  by  Congress,  and 

1  Shelley's  "  Workshop  Appliances." 

*  Report  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  1877,  Appendix  No.  12^ 


BENCH    TOOLS.  II 

therefore  that  yard  which  was  standard  in  England  previous  to 
1776  remains  the  standard  yard  of  the  United  States  to  this 
day."i 

17.  "The  Troughton  Scale  is  a  bronze  bar  with  an  inlaid 
silver  scale,  made  for  the  survey  of  the  coast  of  the  United 
States  by  Troughton,  of  London.  The  bar  is  nearly  86  inches 
long,  2^  inches  wide,  and  one- half  inch  thick.  A  thin  strip  of 
silver,  a  little  more  than  o.i  inch  wide,  is  inlaid  with  its  surface 
flush  with  the  brass,  midway  the  width  of  the  bar.  It  extends 
the  whole  length  of  the  bar,  save  where  it  is  interrupted  by  two 
perforations,  one  near  each  end.  Two  parallel  lines  about  o.i 
inch  apart  are  ruled  longitudinally  on  the  silver.  The  space 
between  them  is  divided  transversely  into  tenths  of  inches. 

"The  zero  mark  of  the  graduations  is  about  3.2  inches  from 
one  end  of  the  bar.  Immediately  over  it  is  engraved  an  eagle, 
surmounted  by  the  motto,  E  Pluribus  Unu7n,  and  thirteen 
stars.  Below  the  38  to  42-inch  divisions  is  engraved  *  Troughton, 
London,  18 14.'  The  bar  is  also  perforated  by  a  hole  above 
the  scale  and  near  the  40-inch  division,  and  by  one  below  it, 
between  the  words  '  Troughton '   and  '  London.'  .  .  . 

"The  yard  of  36  inches,  comprised  between  the  27th  and 
63d  inch  of  the  Troughton  scale,  which  was  found  by  Hassler's 
comparison  to  be  equal  to  the  average  36  inches  of  the  scale,  is 
the  actual  standard  yard  of  the  United  States,  having  been 
adopts  ^  by  the  Treasury  Department  as  such  in  1832,  on  the 
recommendation  of  Mr.  Hassler.^"^ 

18.  Rules  are  measuring  strips,  and  are         ^ict^^^s*  ®® 
usually  made  of  boxwood.     Their  size  is 
expressed  by  their  length  in  inches  or  feet, 
as  a  "  6-inch  rule,"  a  "  2-foot  rule." 

For  convenience,  they  are  made  to  fold, 

1  Report  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  1877,  Appendix  No.  12. 

2  Hassler  was  the  first  superintendent  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey. 


12  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

and  one  is  said  to  be  "two-fold"  when  made  of  two  pieces, 
"  four-fold"  when  made  of  four,  and  "six-fold"  when  made  of 
six  pieces.     Fig.  28  shows  a  four-fold  rule. 

To  preserve  the  rule  from  wear,  the  better  class  are  "bound" 
by  a  strip  of  brass  which  covers  each  edge ;    others  are  "  half- 


bound,"  hav- 
ing only  one 
edge  covered ; 

and  still  others  ^-'^  •  ^  ^ 

are  "unbound,"  having  no  edge  protection. 

Carpenters'  rules  are  usually  graduated  to  eighths 
of  inches  on  one  side,  and  to  sixteenths  on  the  other. 
Besides  the  regular  graduations,  other  numbers  are 
frequently  represented  ;  but  their  purpose  is  so  varied 
that  their  interpretation  cannot  be  given  here. 

19.  The  Framing-Square,  Fig.  29,  as  its  name 
implies,  is  intended  primarily  for  use  in  framing,  and 
would  seem  to  belong  to  the  builder  rather  than  to 
the  bench-worker ;  but  its  range  of  usefulness  makes 
it  valuable  to  any  worker  in  wood. 

All  but  the  very  cheapest  are  of  steel,  and  many  are 
nickel-plated.  The  nickel  prevents  rust,  and  gives 
clearness  to  the  lines  and  figures.  The  figuics  of  the 
graduations  along  the  several  edges,  begin  at  the  angle 
and  extend  to  the  ends  of  the  legs.  In  addition  to 
these,  there  is  on  one  side  a  line  of  figures  beginning 
at  the  end  of  the  long  leg  and  extending  to  the  angle. 
On  the  reverse  side,  represented  by  Fig.  29,  there  is 
on  the  long  leg  a  board-measure  table,  and  on  the 
short  leg  a  brace-measure  table. 

20.  The  Board-measure  Table.  —  Lumber  is  sold  by  the 
square  foot,  and  the  value  of  the  table  lies  in  its  giving  the  area 
of  a  board,  or  of  any  surface,  in  square  feet,  when  its  length  in 
feet  and  its  breadth  in  inches  are  known. 


BENCH    TOOLS.  13 

The  figures  that  belong  to  the  outside  graduations,  i,  2,  3, 
and  so  on  up  to  24,  are  employed  to  represent  the  width  of  the 
board  to  be  measured,  and  all  the  lengths  included  in  the  table 
are  given  in  a  column  under  the  figure  1 2  belonging  to  the  out- 
side graduations.  On  this  square.  Fig.  29,  they  are  14,  10, 
and  8.  To  find  the  surface  of  any  boara,  first  look  in  the 
column  under  12  for  a  number  representing  its  length,  and 
having  found  it,  run  the  finger  along  in  the  same  line  until  it 
comes  under  that  figure  of  the  outside  graduations  that  corre- 
sponds to  the  board's  width.  The  figure  nearest  the  finger  in 
this  line  represents  the  area  of  the  board  in  feet. 

Example  i .  —  How  many  square  feet  are  there  in  a  board 
10'  long  and  7"  wide? 

Under  12  of  the  outside  graduations,  in  Fig.  29,  the  10  is 
in  the  second  line,  and  the  figure  in  this  line  most  nearly 
under  7  of  the  outside  graduations,  is  6,  which  represents  the 
area  required,  in  feet. 

Example  2.  —  What  is  the  surface  of  a  board  whose  length 
is  8'  and  whose  width  is  21"? 

As  in  Example  i,  look  under  12  of  the  outside  graduations 
for  8  ;  in  this  line,  under  2 1  of  the  outside  graduations,  will  be 
found  the  14  which  represents  the  area  required. 

The  reason  that  the  column  under  12,  forming,  as  it  does, 
a  part  of  the  body  of  the  table,  is  taken  to  represent  the  length, 
will  be  clear  when  it  is  remembered  that  any  board  12"  wide 
will  contain  as  many  surface  feet  as  it  contains  linear  feet ;  that 
is,  a  board  12"  wide  and  14'  long  will  have  an  area  of  14  square 
feet.  The  figures  given  under  12  correspond  to  the  usual 
length  to  which  lumber  is  cut,  and  on  most  squares  they  are 
8,  10,  14,  16,  and  18;  and,  since  the  figure  representing  the 
area  differs  from  the  figure  representing  the  length  only  be- 
cause the  width  varies,  we  must  go  to  the  right  or  the  left 
of  the  column  under  12,  when  the  width  is  greater  or  less 
than  12. 


14 


BENCH    WORK   IN    WOOD. 


Fig.  30 

s/V 

h 

A 

c       ^       . 

X 

21.  The  Brace-measure  Table  gives  the  length  of  each  side 
of  several  right-angled  triangles.     A  brace  in  carpentry  is  a 

timber  inserted  diagonally  between  two  other 
timbers  which  usually  are  at  right  angles  to 
each  other.  If  it  is  required  to  insert  a  brace 
C  between  A  and  B,  Fig.  30,  its  length  may 
be  determined  by  using  the  table  on  the 
framing- square,  which,  within  certain  limits, 
gives  the  carpenter  the  length  of  C  when  the 
lengths  A  and  B  are  known. 

Taking  the  group  of  figures  nearest  the  end  of  the  short 
leg  for  the  illustration,  suppose  A  (length  a3)  =  ^f'  and  B 
(length  ac)  =  57",  then  C  (length  l>c)=  80.61".  By  the  next 
group,  it  will  be  seen  that  if  A  and  B  each  equal  54"  or  54', 
C  will  equal  76.31",  or  76.31'.  The  two  figures  representing 
the  length  of  the  two  short  sides  of  the  triangle,  are  always  given 
one  above  the  other,  and  the  figure  representing  the  length  of 
the  third  side,  to  the  right  of  the  other  two. 

22.  A  Try-Square  is  shown  by  Fig.  31.  The  beam  A  in 
this  case  is  of  wood,  faced  by  a  brass  strip  C  to  protect  it  from 

Ti^ig.  31  wear.     The  blade  B,  at   right   angles 

11   to  the  beam,  is  of  steel.     The  gradua- 
B  j    tions  on  the  blade,   together  with   its 
"^^       thinness,  make  this  sc^uare  more  con- 
^,  venient    for  short   measurements    than 
the  rule. 

Try- squares 
are  made  from  4"  to  12",  their  size 
being  expressed  by  the  length  of  the 
blade. 

23.  The  Bevel,  often  improperly 
called  "bevel-square,"  is  made  up  of 
parts  similar  to  those  of  the  try-square, 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


15 


as  will  be  seen  by  Fig.  32.  The  blade  is  adjustable  to  any 
angle  with  the  beam ;  the  thumb-screw  C  fastens  it  when 
set. 

The  size  of  a  bevel  is  expressed  by  the  length  of  its  beam  in 
inches. 


24.  "Miter-Squares"  derive  their 
name  from  the  purpose  they  are  in- 
tended to  serve.  A  "miter"  in  con- 
struction is  one-half  of  a  right  angle, 
or  an  angle  of  45  degrees.  In  the 
"  miter-square  "  the  blade,  as  in  the 
try-square,  is  permanently  set,  but 
at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  z?i' 

The  bevel,  while  neither  so  con- 
venient nor  so  accurate,  is  often 
made  to  answer  the  purpose  of  the 


miter-square. 


Fig.  34 


25.  A   Combination  Try-and-"  Miter  "      i^ig.  35 
Square  is  shown  by  Fig.  34.     This,  while     "^ 

perfect  as  a  try- 
square,  is  trans- 
formed into  a  "mi- 
ter-square "  when 
the  face  of  the 
beam  AB  is  placed 
against  the  work- 
ing-face (119)  of  the  material. 

26.  Dividers  are  much  used  in  spacing 
and  in  laying  off  circles  and  arcs  of  circles. 
The  form  shown  by  Fig.  35  is  known  as  "arc  and  set-screw 
dividers."  The  two  points  are  held  at  any  desired  distance 
from  each  other  by  the  action  of  the  set-screw  A  upon  the 
arc  B.     In  setting,  the  final  adjustment  may  be  made  more 


i6 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


delicate  by  use  of  the  thumb-nut  C,  which,  acting  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  spring  D,  shortens  the  arc  B  or  allows  the  spring  to 
lengthen  it,  as  may  be  required. 


Fig.  36 


27.  Scribing  with  Dividers:  Example  i. — The  four  legs 
of  a  table  are  of  unequal  length,  and  prevent  it  from  standing 
even.     Scribe  the  legs  to  length. 

First,  by  ineans  of  blocks  or  wedges  under  the  shorter  legs, 
make  the  top  of  the  table  to  stand  parallel  to  some  plane  sur- 
face, as  a  bench  top,  or  even  the  floor  if 
it  is  in  good  condition,  either  of  which 
may  be  designated  as  Fy  Fig.  t,^.  Set 
the  dividers  equal  to  or  greater  than  the 
height  of  the  thickest  blocking,  so  that 
while  one  point,  a,  touches  the  leg,  the 
other,  b,  will  rest  upon  F  in  the  same  vertical  line.  Move  the 
dividers,  keeping  b  on  7%  and  producing  by  ^  a  line  on  the  leg,  as 
ca,  which,  if  the  dividers  are  properly  handled,  will  be  parallel 
to  the  surface  F.  Without  changing  the  dividers,  mark  at  least 
two  adjoining  faces  on  each  leg,  and  cut  the  legs  to  line. 

It  is  evident  that  lines  thus  scribed  will  all  be  at  an  equal 
distance  from  the  surface  F\    and  the  table  top,  having  been 

made  parallel  to  F,  it 
follows  that  the  lines 
scribed  are  parallel  to 
the  top,  or  that  the 
length  of  the  four  legs, 
as  defined  by  the  lines, 
is  the  same. 

Example  2.  —  It  is  required  to  fit  the  end  of  a  board  B  to 
the  outline  abed  oi  A,  Fig.  37.  Place  the  board  in  the  position 
shown,  and  set  the  dividers  at  a  distance  equal  to  x.  With 
one  point  at  a  and  the  other  at  e,  let  them  be  moved  together, 
one  following  the  outline  abed  which  the  other  produces  on  B^ 


BENCH   TOOLS. 


17 


as  shown.  Cut  to  line,  and  the  board  will  fit.  When  sharp 
angles,  as  at  /,  enter  into  the  outline,  greater  accuracy  will 
be  attained  if  the  point  /  is  located  by  measuring  firom  the 
base  line  hi. 

28.  Combining  Measuring  Appliances.  — To  find  the  hypot- 
enuse of  a  right-angled  triangle  when  the  other  two  sides  are 
known,  use  the  rule  and  framing- 
square,  as  shown  by  Fig.  2)^, 
Suppose  in  Fig.  30  the  length 
ab  —  5|-",  and  the  length  ac 
=  9|-" ;  to  find  the  length  be, 
apply  one  end  of  the  rule  to 
the  9|-"  mark  on  one  leg  of  the 
square,  and  bring  its  edge  to  /' 
coincide  with  the  5  J"  mark  on 
the  other  leg,  as  shown  by  Fig.  38.  The  reading  of  the  rule 
where  it  coincides  with  the  5^"  mark,  or  io|",  will  be  the  length 
be.  The  length  thus  found  will  be  sufficiently  accurate  for 
many  purposes.  If  the  distance  to  be  measured  is  in  feet, 
imagine  every  inch  on  the  square  to  be  equal  to  a  foot,  and 
read  the  result  in  feet. 

If  the  proportions  of  the  triangle  are  very  large,  the  figure 
may  be  drawn  at  full  size  on  the  shop  floor,  and  the  extent  of 
each  part  determined  by  direct  measurement. 


Fig.  30 


29.  Setting  the  Bevel.  —  To 

set  the  bevel  at  a  miter  (an  angle 

of  45°),  place  the  beam  against 

one  leg  of  the  square  and  adjust 

the  blade  so  that  it  will  agree  with 

equal  distances  on  both  legs,  as 

4"  and  4",  Fig.  39.    Any  distance  may  be  taken,  but  it  must  be 

the  same  on  both  legs. 


(iVi,r,'i,ifiMfi,ifi,i^,if',iri,i!'i,,,'i,i,N, 


i8 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


ITio;.   4:0 


The  carpenter  frequently  describes  an  angle  to  which  the  bevel 
may  be  set  as  "  i  in  2  "  or  "  i  in  4,"  by  which  is  meant  that 
while  the  beam  is  applied,  as  shown  by  Fig.  39,  the  blade  corre- 
sponds to  the  i"  mark  on  one  leg,  and  the  2"  mark  on  the  other ; 
or  to  the  i"  mark  on  one  leg,  and  the  4"  mark  on  the  other. 

30.  To  set  the  Bevel  at  an  Angle  of  60,  and  of  120  De- 
grees. —  In  Fig.  40  the  board  A  has  a  jointed  edge  a ;  at  any 

distance  from  a,  gauge  a 
line  be.  From  any  point 
on  be,  with  any  radius, 
use  the  dividers  to  strike 
the  arc  be;  with  same 
radius,  strike  from  b  the 
arc/.  Place  the  beam 
of  the  bevel  against  face 
a,  move  blade  till  it  co- 
incides with  the  points  b  and/,  and  the  bevel  is  set  at  an  angle  of 
60  degrees  with  one  side  of  beam,  and  1 20  degrees  with  the  other. 
60  degrees  is  the  measure  of  the  angle  between  any  two  faces  of 
an  equilateral  triangle,  and  120  degrees,  of  the  angle  between 
any  two  faces  of  a  regular  hexagon  ;  for  these  reasons,  the  bevel 
set  at  these  angles  is  often  of  use  in  construction. 

31.  To  set  the  Bevel  at  any  given  Angle.  —  If  an  attempt 

is  made  to  set  the  bevel  di- 
rectly from  lines  on  paper,  it 
will  be  found  difficult  to  de- 
termine when  the  tool  agrees 
with  the  drawing.  It  is  better 
to  transfer  such  an  angle  to  a 
board,  from  the  working-edge 
of  which  the  bevel  may  be 
set.  Thus,  if  it  is  required 
to  set  the  bevel  at  the  angle 
abe,  Fig.  41,  a  board,  as  A, 
should  be  lined  as  follows : 

from  the  working-edge  gauge  the  line  a^b^ ;  with  the  dividers, 


iriK.41 


BENCH   TOOLS.  I9 

at  any  convenient  radius,  describe  from  b^  the  arc  <?'^ ;  with  the 
same  radius  describe  from  b  the  arc  ed\  set  the  dividers  so  that 
with  one  point  on  e  the  other  will  fall  on/,  and  lay  off  this  dis- 
tance on  e^d\  locating  /' ;  connect  b^  and  /"'  \  the  angle  a!bU^ 
will  be  equal  to  abc.  As  a}b^  is  by  construction  parallel  to  the 
working-edge  of  the  board,  the  angle  between  the  working- 
edge  and  ^V  is  equal  to  the  angle  abc.  If,  then,  with  the  beam 
of  the  bevel  on  the  working- edge,  the  blade  is  made  to  coin- 
cide with  bU\  the  bevel  will  be  set  at  the  angle  abc. 

32.  Marking-Gauges.  —  Fig.  42  shows  the  usual  form  of  a 
marking-gauge.  The  steel  point,  or  "spur,"  <f,  should  be  filed 
to  a  narrow  edge,  so  that  it 

will  make  a  sharp  line. 

The  graduations  along  the  ^ 

length  of  the  beam  ^,  are 
not  to  be  depended  on  un- 
less it  is  known  that  the 
zero  line  is  exactly  opposite 
the  spur.  When  the  zero  mark  and  the  spur  do  not  agree,  as 
is  frequently  the  case,  it  is  necessary  in  setting  the  gauge  to 
measure  from  the  head  A  to  the  spur  e.  A  when  set,  is  pre- 
vented from  moving  on  B,  by  the  screw  C. 

33.  A  Mortise-Gauge,  shown  by  Fig.  43,  has  two  spurs,  a 
being  fastened  to  the  beam,  and  b  \.q  2.  brass  slide  which  works 
in  a  groove  in  the  beam.  The 
spur  b  may  be  set  at  any  dis- 
tance from  a  by  the  action  of 


mig.  4r3 


the  screw  c.  The  gauge  may, 
therefore,  be  set  to  line  both 
sides  of  a  mortise  at  the  same  time. 

34.    Panel-Gauges,  Fig.  44,  are  for  use  in  making  lines  at  a[ 
considerable  distance  from  the  working-edge. 


20  BENCH    WORK   IN    WOOD. 

The  length  of  the  head  A  is  sufificiently  increased  to  receive 
good  support  from  the  working-edge,  which  guides  it. 


35.  Cutting-Gauges,  having  a  long,  thin  blade  in  the  place 
of  the  usual  spur,  are  in  form  similar  to  that  shown  by  Fig.  42. 
They  are  useful  in  cutting  strips  of  thin  material. 

36.  Chalk-Lines  are  very  seldom  used  in  bench  work,  but 
are  often  convenient  in  applying  such  work  to  larger  structures. 
The  cord  used  in  lining  should  be  as  small  as  is  consistent  with, 
strength.  On  most  surfaces  blue  chalk  is  more  easily  seen  than 
white, 

37.  The  Scriber,  as  known  to  the  trade,  takes  a  variety  of 
forms,  from  that  of  an  awl  to  that  of  a  peculiar  short-bladed 
knife.  A  well-kept  pocket  knife  of  convenient  size  will  be 
found  a  good  substitute  for  any  of  them. 

38.  The  Pencil  used  in  lining  on  board  surfaces  should  be 
soft,  and  kept  well^pointed  by  frequent  sharpening. 

Chisels  and  Chisel-like  Tools. 

39.  Firmer-Chisels  have  blades  wholly  of  steel.  They  are 
fitted  with  light  handles  and  are  intended  for  hand  use  only. 

Fig.  45 


I 


40.  Framing-Chisels  have  heavy  iron  blades  overlaid  with 
steel.  The  handles  are  stout  and  are  protected  at  the  end  by 
ferrules.  This  chisel  is  used  in  heavy  mortising  and  framing, 
and  is  driven  to  its  work  by  the  mallet. 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


21 


Compare  Fig.  45,  which  shows  a  firmer-chisel,  with  Fig.  46, 
which  shows  a  framing-chisel. 


The  size  of  chisels  is  indicated  by  the  width  of  the  cutting 
edge,  and  varies  from  ^"  to  i"  by  sixteenths,  and  from  i:^"  to 
2"  by  fourths. 

41.  A  Corner-Chisel  is  shown  by  Fig.  47.  Its  two  cutting 
edges  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  this  form  renders 


it  useful  in  making  inside  angles,  as,  for  example,  the  comers  of 
a  mortise.  Its  handle  is  Hke  that  of  a  framing-chisel.  The  size 
of  a  corner-chisel  is  indicated  by  the  length  of  one  cutting  edge. 

42.    Gouges  have  blades  that,  throughout  their  length,  are 
curved  in  section,  as  shown  by  Fig.  48.    When  the  bevel  forming 

Fig.  4S 


the  cutting  edge  is  on  the  concave  side,  they  are  called  "inside 
gouges  " ;  when  on  the  convex  side,  "  outside  gouges."  For 
general  purposes  the  outside  gouge  is  most  convenient,  and  the 
carpenter,  with  his  limited  facilities  for  the  care  of  tools,  can 
more  easily  keep  it  in  order.  The  size  of  a  gouge  is  indicated 
by  the  length  of  a  straight  line  extending  from  one  extremity  of 
the  cutting  edge  to  the  other. 


22 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


43.  Handles  for  chisels,  gouges,  and  similar  tools,  are  of  two 
general  classes,  light  and  heavy ;  the  former  are  intended  prin- 
cipally for  hand  use,  and  are  shown  in  connection  with  the  firmer- 
chisel  and  gouge ;  the  latter,  which  are  re-enforced  at  the  end 
by  a  ferrule  that  they  may  withstand  blows  from  the  mallet,  are 
illustrated  in  connection  with  the  framing- chisel  and  the  comer- 
chisel. 

Handles  may  be  shank-fitted,  like  the  one  shown  by  Fig.  48, 
or  socket-fitted,  as  shown  by  Fig.  47.  The  better  class  of  tools 
have  socket-fitted  handles. 

44.  The  Drawing-Knife,  shown  by  Fig.  49,  is  in  reality  a 
wide  chisel,  though  it  is  quite  different  from  a  chisel  in  form. 


The  handles  are  so  attached  as  to  stand  in  advance  of  the  cut- 
ting edge,  which  is  drawn  into  the  work,  instead  of  being  pushed 
into  it,  as  is  the  case  with  a  chisel.  The  drawing-knife  is  very 
effective  on  narrow  surfaces  that  are  to  be  considerably  reduced. 
The  size  is  indicated  by  the  length  of  the  cutting  edge. 

45.  The  Action  of  Cutting  Wedges.  —  Every  cutting  tool 
is  a  wedge  more  or  less  acute.  In  action  it  has  two  operations 
to  perform  :  first,  cutting  the  fibers  of  the  wood  ;  and,  secondly, 
widening  the  cut  in  order  that  the  tool  may  penetrate  into  the 
material,  and  thus  allow  the  cutting  edge  to  go  on  with  its 
work.  To  widen  the  cut,  the  fibers  of  the  wood  must  be  pressed 
apart  (the  wood  split),  or  the  fiber  ends  crushed,  or  the  mate- 
rial on  one  side  of  the  wedge  must  be  bent,  thus  forming  a 


BENCH  TOOLS.  23 

shaving.  It  is  evident  that  a  unit  of  force  tending  to  drive  the 
edge  forward  will,  under  like  conditions  of  material,  always 
result  in  the  same  amount  of  incision.  But  much  less  force  is 
required  to  carry  the  tool  forward  when  the  cutting  edge  is  just 
entering  the  material,  than  when  it  has  advanced  to  a  consider- 
able depth,  and,  hence,  it  is  fair  to  assume  that  this  difference  is 
due  solely  to  the  resistance  that  the  material  offers  in  opening 
to  make  way  for  the  tool,  this  resistance  increasing  as  the  tool 
goes  deeper.  The  resistance  offered  to  a  tool  by  a  bending 
shaving,  therefore,  may  be  many  times  greater  than  that  offered 
to  the  cutting  edge  by  the  wood  fibers. 

An  obtuse-angled  wedge  will  cut  as  easily  as  a  more  acute- 
angled  one,  but  the  more  obtuse  the  angle  is,  the  more  abrupt 
must  be  the  turni'^g  of  the  shaving ;  and  since  the  latter  factor 
is  the  more  important,  as  regards  the  absorption  of  force,  it 
follows  that  the  more  acute  the  cutting  edge  is,  the  more  easily 
it  will  accomplish  its  work. 

46.  Angle  of  Cutting  Wedge  in  Chisel  and  Gouge. — The 

acuteness  of  the  angle  cannot  be  defined  in  degrees  since, 
being  limited  only  by  the  strength  of  the  steel,  it  must  vary  as 
the  duty  required  of  it  varies.  For  example,  a  more  acute 
angle  may  be  used  in  soft  than  in  hard  wood ;  again,  a  chisel 
handled  as  shown  by  Figs.  147  and  148,  is  not  so  severely 
strained  as  when  used  in  the  manner  illustrated  by  Fig.  149. 
If  the  maximum  degree  of  delicacy  were  insisted  on  under 
every  condition  of  use,  the  cutting  edge  would  need  to  vary 
with  every  turn  of  the  chisel,  and  almost  with  every  shaving  it 
cuts.  This  would  be  impracticable,  and  wood  workers  reduce 
all  these  requirements  to  a  single  principle  which  may  be 
expressed  as  follows :  let  the  cutting  edge  be  as  acute  as  the 
metal  will  allow  without  breaking,  when  fairly  used.  A  little 
experience  with  a  given  tool  is  the  readiest  means  of  finding 
the  angle  suited  to  a  given  class  of  work.     Carriage  makers, 


24  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

who  work  almost  wholly  in  hard  woods,  are  in  the  habit  of 
using  what  pattern  makers,  who  work  principally  in  soft  woods, 
would  style  blunt  chisels. 

47.  Grinding.  —  A  new  chisel,  or  one  that  has  become  con- 
siderably dull,  must  be  ground.     With  the  handle  of  the  chisel 


in  the  right  hand,  and  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  resting  on 
the  blade  near  its  cutting  edge,  apply  the  chisel  to  the  stone, 
Fig.  50,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  outline  a,  and  then  raise  the 
right  hand  until  the  proper  angle  is  reached,  a  position  indi- 
cated by  the  full  outline  b.  See  that  there  is  a  good  supply  of 
water,  and,  as  the  grinding  progresses,  move  the  tool  gradually 
from  one  side  of  the  stone  to  the  other. 

Assuming  that  the  stone  is  in  fairly  good  order,  the  tool 
should  be  applied  relative  to  its  motion,  in  the  manner  shown 
by  a  and  b.  Fig.  50,  the  motion  being  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrow  d.  If  the  stone  is  not  round  or  does  not  run  true,  there 
is  danger  that  the  cutting  edge  may  dig  into  it,  to  the  injury  of 
both  stone  and  tool.  Under  such  conditions,  it  will  be  best  for 
the  operator  to  move  round  to  the  other  side,  and  hold  the  tool 
in  the  position  indicated  by  c.  The  first  position  is  preferable, 
chiefly  because  of  two  reasons :  first,  the  tool  may  be  held 
more  steadily ;  and,  secondly,  there  is  less  tendency  toward  the 
production  of  a  "  wire  edge.'*  As  the  extreme  edge  becomes 
thin  by  grinding,  it  springs  slightly  away  from  the  stone,  and 
allows  the  chisel  at  points  still  farther  from  the  edge  to  become 
thin,  thus  resulting  in  an  extremely  delicate  edge  which  must  be 
removed  before  the  tool  can  be  made  sharp.  In  the  effort  to 
remove  this  wire  edge,  it  frequently  breaks  off  farther  back  than 


BENCH   TOOLS. 


25 


TTig.  5:1 


is  desired,  and  the  process  of  whetting  is  prolonged.  With  the 
chisel  held  at  c  (instead  of  b,  the  proper  position)  the  direc- 
tion of  the  motion  relative  to  the  tool  aggravates  this  tendency 
of  the  light  edge  to  spring  away  from  the  stone. 

The  grinding  process  is  complete  when  the  ground  surface 
reaches  the  cutting  edge  —  a  condition  readily  determined  by 
holding  the  tool  to  the  light.  If  it  is  still  dull,  there  will  be  a 
bright  line  along  the  cutting  edge.  When  this  line  has  disap- 
peared, the  tool  is  as  sharp  as  it  can  be  made  by  grinding, 
which,  if  persisted  in,  will  only  result  in  a  wire  edge.  The 
action  of  the  grindstone,  however,  is  too  severe  to  produce  a 
good  cutting  edge,  and  the  chisel,  after  being  ground,  must  be 
whetted  (107 -no). 

48.  To  whet  the 
chisel,  apply  it  to 
the  oilstone  A,  Fig. 
51,  in  the  position 
shown  by  the  dot- 
ted outline  b^  and 
as  it  is  moved  back 

and  forth  along  the  length  of  the  stone,  as  indicated  by  the 
arrows,  gradually  bring  it  to  the  position  shown  by  b\  That  is, 
the  angle  between  it  and  the  stone  is  to  be  increased  until  the 
cutting  edge  c  comes  in  contact  with  the  stone ;  this  position 
can  be  recognized  by  the  sensation  imparted  to  the  hand,  and 
the  behavior  of  the  oil  with  which  the  stone  is  lubricated.  At 
first  thought,  it  may  seem  that 
the  bevel  ab,  Fig.  52,  which  was 
produced  by  the  grinding,  should 
be  maintained  in  whetting;  but 
to  do  this  would  require  so  much 
time  that  one  corresponding  very 
nearly  to  ab,  as  cd,  is  taken. 

Great  care  is  necessary  on  the  part  of  one  unskilled  to  avoid  giv« 


o 


Fig. 


^\^>i 

V 


26  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

ing  the  tool  a  rocking  motion  on  the  oilstone  ;  if  this  is  indulged 
-pj,^  ;_^  in,  the  edge  will  appear  rounded,  as 

^/--^^ shown  by  Fig.  53,  and  will  be  no 

^.,'^^^^^^^fl____:_  :A    sharper   than   if  it   had  the    form 

indicated  by  the  dotted  outline 
abc.  When  sufficiently  whetted,  the  cutting  edge,  if  held  to 
the  light,  will  show  a  dull,  grayish  hue.  If  a  bright  hne  appears 
along  the  edge,  it  is  not  yet  sharp.  The  whetting  turns  a  light 
wire  edge  over  on  the  flat  face,  an  exaggeration  of  which  is 

shown  by  a,  Fig.  54.  This  can- 
not always  be  seen,  but  may  be 
detected  by  the  finger ;  it  is  re- 
moved by  a  single  stroke  of  the 
blade  with  the  flat  face  on  the 
stone,  as  shown  by  a\  Fig.  51.  It  is  necessary,  however,  that 
every  precaution  be  taken  to  prevent  the  production  of  a  bevel 
indicated  by  the  dotted  line  c,  Fig.  54,  and  opposite  that 
already  existing.  To  guard  against  this,  the  chisel  should  be 
applied  to  the  stone  in  the  manner  illustrated  by  the  outline  a. 
Fig.  51  (111-115). 

A  tool  must  be  whetted  often  enough  to  keep  the  edge  in 
good  condition  ;  it  is  dull  whenever  it  fails  to  cut  well.  When, 
by  frequent  whetting,  the  whetted  surface  becomes  so  broad  as 
to  require  considerable  time  in  the  production  of  the  edge,  it 
should  be  reground,  and  the  process  just  described  repeated. 

This  method  of  sharpening  the  chisel  will,  in  general,  apply 
to  the  gouge,  drawing-knife,  and  all  similar  tools. 

Saws. 

49.  The  efficiency  of  any  saw  is  measured  by  the  amount  of 
force  it  absorbs  in  making  a  given  cut  or  "  kerf."  For  example, 
if  one  saw  severs  a  4"  X  4"  timber  with  half  the  force  required 
by  another,  it  is  evident  that  the  second  saw  is  only  one-half 
as  efficient  as  the  first.     Almost  every  element  that  enters  into 


BENCH    TOOLS.  2^ 

saw  constmction  has  its  effect  on  the  efficiency  of  the  tool. 
Chief  among  them  is  the  thickness  of  the  blade,  which,  of 
course,  detennines  the  width  of  the  kerf ;  for  a  wide  kerf  will 
require  the  removal  of  more  material  than  a  narrow  one,  and 
the  force  absorbed  in  each  case  must  bear  some  relation  to  the 
amount  of  material  removed.  In  recognition  of  this  fact,  the 
people  of  some  eastern  countries  use  saws  designed  to  cut 
when  drawn  towards  the  operator,  a  method  of  handling  that 
allows  great  thinness  of  blade  —  too  great  to  stand  the  thrust  by 
which  our  saws  are  driven  into  the  work.  But  the  result  is 
that  the  Chinese  saw,  for  example,  Fig.  ^s 

which  is  represented  by  Fig.  55, 
accomplishes  its  work  with  re- 
markable ease.  The  shape  of  such  a  saw,  however,  and  the 
awkward  manner  of  applying  force  to  it,  probably  more  than 
neutralize  the  advantage  gained  from  its  deHcacy,  although  in 
the  abstract,  the  thinner  the  blade  the  better  the  saw. 

50.  The  form  of  our  own  saws  is  not  the  result  of  chance, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  has  been  developed  after  a  careful  study 
of  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  required  to  work. 
Other  things  being  equal,  pushing  a  saw  gives  better  results 
than  pulling  it.  Under  a  thrusting  force,  it  is  found  necessary 
to  make  the  blade  sufficiently  thick  and  strong  to  resist  bend- 
ing tendencies,  but  with  no  surplus  material  to  add  unneces- 
sary weight.  In  view  of  these  facts  the  outline  of  the  blade  is 
tapered,  as  shown  by  Fig.  56.  The  blade  is  thicker  also  at  the 
handle  than  at  the  point.     To  assist  in  giving  it  clearance  in 


IPig.  5G      ^^^^TO^^^g*  ^^s-  ^^ 


L    .      ., 

the  kerf,  it  is  tapered  from  the  teeth  to  the  back.     This  differ- 
ence in  thickness  is  accomplished  in  the  process  of  manufacture, 


28  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

by  grinding  the  rough  blade  after  it  has  been  hardened.  Im- 
perfections  left  by  the  hardening  or  the  grinding  process,  may 
be  detected  in  the  finished  saw  by  bending  the  blade,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  57.  If  it  is  uniformly  ground  and  hardened,  the  curve 
will  be  regular  as  shown  ;  if  it  is  thick  in  spots,  or  if  it  varies  in 
hardness,  the  curve  will  be  uneven,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted 
line. 

51.  Set.  —  The  thinning  of  the  blade  back  from  the  cutting 
edge  will  not,  in  most  cases,  prevent  the  sides  of  the  kerf  from 
pressing  against  the  saw.  To  meet  this  difficulty,  the  saw  teeth 
are  bent  —  one  to  one  side,  the  next  to  the  other  side  —  so  as  to 
make  the  width  of  the  kerf  greater  than  the  thickness  of  the 
blade.  The  amount  of  such  bending,  or  "  set,"  as  well  as  its 
uniformity,  can  readily  be  seen  by  holding  the  saw  to  the  light 
with  the  back  of  the  blade  next  the  eye ;  it  will  then  appear  as 

Fig.  58  shown  by  Fig.  58. 

^  ^  In  very  hard  material  the  sides  of 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^  the  kerf  are  left  smooth  and  even,  and 
scarcely  any  set  is  required ;  sometimes  even  none.  But  if  the 
material  is  soft  and  spongy,  the  fibers  spring  away  from  the 
advancing  teeth,  and  then  come  back  again  on  the  blade  after 
the  teeth  have  passed ;  hence,  a  large  amount  of  set  is  required. 
For  most  purposes  at  the  bench,  however,  the  set  is  sufficient 
when  it  can  be  easily  and  clearly  seen. 

52.  Size  of  Saw  Teeth.  —  For  proper  action,  each  tooth 
should  begin  to  cut  when  it  enters  the  work,  and  continue  cut- 
ting until  it  leaves  the  kerf,  and,  since  the  space  in  front  of 
each  tooth  must  contain  the  material  removed  by  it,  the  capa- 
city of  the  space  must  be  increased  in  those  saws  which  are 
required  to  work  through  a  considerable  depth  of  material.  A 
two-handed  cross-cutting-saw  for  logs,  therefore,  has  the  teeth 
widely  placed,  thus  making  the  intervals  large. 

In  panel-saws,  such  as  are  used  at  the  bench,  except  in  spe- 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


29 


cial  cases,  the  space  is  of  the  same  size  and  form  with  the 
tooth.  When  the  spaces  are  large,  the  teeth  must  be  large, 
and,  since  the  size  of  the  spaces  has  a  direct  relation  to  the 
amount  of  material  removed,  it  may  be  said  that  the  size  of 
the  teeth  depends  on  the  size  of  the  material  in  which  the  saw 
is  to  work. 

The  size  of  saw  teeth  is  expressed  by  the  number  contained 
in  an  inch.  Thus  "  6  teeth  "  means  that  the  distance  from 
one  point  to  another  is  ^  ". 

53.  Ripping-Saws  and  Cross-cutting-Saws. — A  ripping-saw 
is  one  that  is  used  in  cutting  with  the  grain  of  the  wood,  as  on  the 
line  ab,  Fig.  59.  A  cross-cutting-saw 
is  intended  for  use  at  right  angles  to 
the  grain,  as  indicated  by  cd,  Fig. 
59.  An  oblique  kerf,  such  as  is 
shown  by  ef,  Fig.  59,  may  in  soft 
wood  be  cut  with  the  ripping-saw,  which  will  work  faster  than 
the  cross-cutting,  but  the  work  will  be  more  smoothly  done 
by  the  latter.  A  large  knot  in  the  course  of  the  ripping-saw 
may  make  it  best  to  substitute  the  cross- cutting-saw  until  the 
knot  is  passed  through,  after  which  the  ripping-saw  may  be 
used  again.     A  cross-cutting-saw  for  the  bench  should  have 

Fig.  60 


ITijr.  GO 


Sec.  A  B. 


ELEVATION. 


a  22"  or  24"  blade  with  7^  or  8  teeth  to  the  inch;   a  rip 
ping-saw  should  have  a  24  "  or  26  "  blade,  with  6  or  6^  teeth. 


30  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

54.  The  Teeth  of  Ripping-Saws.  —  Fig.  60  shows  a  plan, 
elevation,  and  section  of  three  teeth  as  they  are  usually  made 
for  a  ripping-saw.  The  following  paragraphs  present  a  consid- 
eration of  the  action  of  an  individual  tooth. 

All  wood  is  fibrous,  and  any  tool  which  is  to  produce  a  cut 
along  the  length  of  the  fibers,  as  the  saw  keri  a/^,  Fig.  59,  must, 
at  each  period  of  action,  take  something  from  the  ends  of  such 


^.61 


WEPI 


fibers  as  may  lie  in  the  path  of  the  proposed  opening.  In  fulfil- 
ling this  condition,  the  action  of  a  ripping-saw's  tooth  is  not 
unlike  the  action  of  a  chisel  when  used  as  shown  by  Fig.  149. 
Each  tooth  in  its  turn  removes  its  share  from  the  fiber  ends  over 
which  it  passes,  just  as  the  chisel  at  every  change  of  position 
takes  its  slice  and  lengthens  the  cut.  The  cutting  edge  of 
a  saw  tooth,  however,  is  bounded  by  a  more  obtuse  angle  than 
that  of  a  chisel,  and  as  a  cutting  tool  is  inferior.  Thus,  if  one 
of  the  three  teeth  shown  by  Fig.  60  is  applied  to  a  saw  kerf  in 
the  position  it  would  occupy  as  part  of  a  complete  saw,  it  will 
appear  as  represented  by  Fig.  61,  its  motion  being  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  arrow.  It  is  defective  as  a  cut- 
Fig.  63  .  ,  ,  ^  ,  . .  -  , 
^^^                     tmg   tool,  because    of  the   position  01    the 

^^^k'  line  ad,  the  advancing  face  of  the    tooth. 

^^  ^  This  defect  is  more  clearly  illustrated  by 
Fig.  62 ;  this  shows  how  a  chisel  would  look  if  its  edge  were 
made  to  cut  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  a  saw  tooth. 
But  the  fact  is  that  a  great  discrepancy  exists  between  the 
form  of  the  saw  tooth  and  that  of  the  •  chisel,  for  it  has 
been  demonstrated  that  a  chisel,  to  give  good  results,  must 


BENCH   TOOLS.  3 1 

be  at  least  as  acute  as  is  indicated  by  the  dotted  line  a; 
and  it  would  seem  that  the  former  might  be  improved  by 
bringing  it  more  nearly  to  the  outline  of  the  latter.  Sup- 
pose this  be  attempted,  and  that  the  face  of  the  tooth  in- 
dicated by  the  line  c^,  Fig.  60,  be  changed  to  c^'.  Such 
a  change  must  result  either  in  removing  material  from  the 
tooth,  and  thereby  weakening  it,  or  in  changing  the  line  cd 
to  a  position  c^'.  In  other  words,  if  the  tooth  is  not  weak- 
ened, the  space  between  it  and  the  next  will  be  reduced. 
Again,  if  to  make  the  advancing  face  still  more  acute,  the  line 
cd"  is  accepted,  and  the  tooth  is  not  made  smaller  (that  is, 
weakened),  there  will  be  no  space  between  it  and  the  next 
tooth.  Having  no  spaces,  there  can  be  no  teeth,  and  conse- 
quently the  attempted  change  is  impossible.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  the  angle  of  the  advancing  face  of  the  ripping-saw 
tooth  cannot,  unless  it  is  weakened,  be  much  more  acute  than 
is  shown  by  Fig.  60  and  Fig.  61. 

The  form  of  the  tooth  may  be  wholly  changed,  however,  to 
the  outline  shown  by  Fig.  63,  and  some  advantage  may  thus 
be  gained  in  respect  of  the  cutting  angle ;  but  such  a  tooth, 
while  suitable  for  machine-saws  of  considerable  size,  is  too 
complicated  for  small  saws. 

Nothing  remains,  then,  as  a  possible  means  of  improving  the 
cutting  edge  of  the  saw  tooth,  except  a  modification  of  the 
angle  l>ct/,  Fig.  60.  If  it  could  be  shown  that  there  is  an  excess 
of  strength  in  the  tooth,  above  what  is  needed  to  perform  its 
work,  the  angle  might  be  changed  to  ^V^,  or  even  to  l^'U-d,  and 
the  value  of  the  tooth  as  a  cutting  tool  be  increased.  More- 
over, it  does  not  at  first  seem  unreasonable  to  attempt  such  a 
change,  for  it  is  evident  that  the  cutting  wedge  of  the  chisel 
(which  we  have  regarded  as  the  typical  cutting  tool),  while 
much  more  acute  than  the  angle  Ifct/,  is  yet  strong  enough  to 
be  entirely  satisfactory. 

A  more  careful  comparison  of  the  saw  and  chisel,  however, 


32 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


discloses  the  following  facts  :  first,  a  saw  tooth  must  be  softer 
than  a  chisel  in  order  that  it  may  be  set  and  filed,  and  being 
softer,  is  therefore  weaker  in  its  substance  ;  secondly,  the  width 
of  the  saw  tooth  is  less  than  half  the  width  of  the  narrowest 
chisel  made,  and,  in  this  respect  also,  it  is  at  a  disadvan- 
tage ;  and,  thirdly,  in  using  a  chisel  the  operator's  atten- 
tion is  given  entirely  to  its  one  cutting  edge,  and  if  at  any 
time  it  is  likely  to  receive  too  much  strain,  it  is  at  once  re- 
lieved ;  while  each  saw  tooth,  on  the  contrary,  forms  but  a 
small  part  of  a  tool  that  receives  little  attention  and  much  vig- 
orous handling  while  it  is  being  driven  through  straight  grain, 
crooked  grain,  or  hard  knots,  as  the  case  may  be.  From  a 
consideration  of  these  points,  it  seems  clear  that  the  cutting- 
angle  of  a  saw  tooth  must  be  less  acute  than  that  of  a  chisel. 
But  the  degree  of  acuteness  can  be  determined  only  by  use. 
Fig.  60  shows  the  form  which  years  of  experience  have  proved 
the  most  practicable  for  general  work,  and  while  some  bench- 
workers  do  file  their  saws  "  under,"  producing  a  tooth  similar 
to  dcb\  as  many  more  go  to  the  other  extreme  and  use  a  tooth 
similar  to  dcf.  The  typical  form  given  is  easily  kept  in  order, 
and,  when  in  that  condition,  will  cut  freely  and  well. 


Fiff.  64 


55.    The  Teeth  of   Cross-cutting-Saws. — If  a  ripping-saw 
is  used  directly  across  the  grain,  the  fibers  of  the  material  will 

be  torn  from  each 
other  without  being 
properly  cut ;  hence 
the  necessity  for  a 
saw  that  will  "  cross- 
cut." Fig.  64  shows 
by  its  three  views  a 
representative  form 
of  tooth  for  this  saw. 
It  will  be  seen  by  the  figure  that  the  tooth  terminates  in  a  trian- 


BENCH  TOOLS. 


33 


IT'ig.  65 


gular  point ;  and  also,  that  while  the  point  a  is  formed  on  one 
side  of  the  blade,  the  next,  a\  is  formed  on  the  opposite  side ; 
thus  throughout  its  length,  the  points  of  any  two  adjacent  teeth 
being  on  opposite  sides  of  the  blade.  This  arrangement  makes 
the  end  view  of  the  blade  show  two  parallel  lines  of  points,  and 
between  them  a  triangular  depression,  which,  when  exaggerated 
by  the  "set,"  will  appear  as  shown  by 
section  AB,  Fig.  64. 

In  action,  the  points  a  and  a\  Fig.  65, 
score  the  work,  and  the  friction  between 
the  teeth  and  the  cut  fibers  breaks  up 
the  latter,  and  they  are  carried  off  by 
the  saw. 

Assuming  that  it  is  a  matter  of  convenience  to  have  these 
teeth,  as  well  as  those  of  the  ripping-saw,  equal  to  the  space 
between  any  two  of  them,  there  are  three  questions  which  may 
be  considered  concerning  their  proportions.  First,  what  shall 
be  the  inclination  of  the  advancing  edge  or  "  face "  of  the 
tooth,  as  represented  by  the  line  ab  compared  with  the  line  bd^ 
Fig.  64  ?  Holly,  in  his  little  work  on  "  The  Art  of  Saw-FiHng," 
shows  the  similarity  of  action  between  the  advancing  edge  ab 
and  the  edge  of  a  pocket  knife  when  made  to  cut  across  the 
grain,  and  asserts  that  a  knife  with  its  cutting  edge  perpen- 
dicular to  the  surface  upon  which  it  acts  (a  position  equiva- 
lent to  bd)  will  make  a  rougher  cut,  and  require  more  force 
to  carry  it  forward  at  a  given  depth,  than  when  it  is  inclined 
in  a  position  similar  to  that  of  the  line  ab.  The  result  obtained 
from  such  an  experiment  cannot  be  regarded  as  conclusive, 
because  of  the  great  difference  in  the  character  of  the  cutting 
edges  compared.  But,  if  it  is  found  that  the  knife  with  its 
keen  cutting  edge  behaves  more  satisfactorily  at  an  inclination 
to  the  work,  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that  the  rougher 
edge  of  a  saw  tooth  will  give  the  best  results  when  much  more 
inclined.     A  consideration  of  these  points  justifies  the  belief 


34  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

that  an  angle  of  60  degrees  with  the  work,  that  is,  with  a  line 
passing  through  the  points  a '  and  a,  is  none  too  great,  and  all 
practice  goes  to  show  that  teeth  so  formed  not  only  do  very 
smooth  work,  but  cut  with  ease  and  rapidity. 

Secondly,  what  shall  be  the  angle  of  the  advancing  face  of 
the  tooth,  as  represented  by  lines  e'e  and  ef,  Sec.  £F,  Fig.  64? 
Since  this  angle  forms  the  cutting  wedge  of  the  tooth,  it  should 
be  as  acute  as  is  consistent  with  strength.  Greater  strength 
being  required  for  action  in  hard  wood  than  in  soft,  it  follows 
that  this  angle  should  be  varied  with  the  material  in  which  it  is 
used.     For  general  work  it  may  correspond  to  the  angle  e'e/. 

Thirdly,  what  shall  be  the  acuteness  of  the  point  as  indicated 
by  the  angle  mj,  Sec.  AB,  Fig.  64  ?  This,  also,  is  determined 
by  the  character  of  the  material  to  be  cut.  It  should  be  more 
obtuse,  as  tak,  for  hard  wood  than  for  soft  wood,  not  only  be- 
cause additional  strength  is  required,  but  also  because,  if  too 
acute,  the  scoring  will  be  done  so  easily  that  the  fibers  be- 
tween the  scores  will  not  break  out,  and  the  saw,  being  unable 
to  pass  down  into   new  work,  will  slide   along   on  the   old. 


I^ig 

.e-r 

Under  such  conditions,  the  bottom  of  the  kerf  will  appear 
as  shown  by  Fig.  66.  A  more  obtuse  angle  will  not  pene- 
trate the  work  so  readily,  but  it  will  break  up  the  fibers  better, 
and  thus  leave  the  kerf  in  proper  form  as  shown  by  Fig.  67. 
The  softer  woods  break  out  more  easily  than  the  harder  ones, 
and,  consequently,  a  keener  point  may  be  used  in  working  in 
them. 

56.    The  Back-Saw  is  used  only  where  accurate  cuts  are 
required.     Its  teeth,  in  form,  are  similar  to  those  of  the  cross- 


BENCH    TOOLS.  35 

cuttmg-saw,  except  that    the   line   of  the   advancing  face   is 

brought  forward  as  indicated  by  bkl,  Fig.  64,  to  increase  their 

efficiency  when  used  with  the  ^^^^ 

grain.       They   are,    however, 

much  finer,  there  being  usually 

as    many    as    sixteen    to    the 

inch.     This  saw  cuts  slowly  as 

compared  with  a  panel-saw,  but  may  be  used  in  veiy  delicate 

work.     It  is  used  to  cut  in  any  direction  relative  to  the  grain 

of  the  wood.     The  bur  left  by  the  file  after  sharpening,  forms 

a  sufficient  set. 

The  l)lade  A,  Fig.  (i?>^  is  in  itself  too  thin  to  withstand  the 
thrust  necessary  to  drive  it  into  the  work,  and  is  strengthened 
by  an  iron  "back,"  B.  This,  being  thicker  than  the  blade,  will 
not  allow  the  saw  to  penetrate  beyond  a  depth  represented  by 
the  distance  C.  For  this  reason  the  blade  is  uniform  in  width 
instead  of  tapering. 

57.  The  Compass-Saw,  shown  by  Fig.  69,  is  intended  for 
sawing  in  curved  lines.     Its  blade  is  extremely  thick,  and  the 

teeth  are  given  an  enor- 
mous amount  of  set.  See 
sections  AB  and  CD, 
Fig.  69.  If  the  curve  in 
which  it  is  to  be  used  is 
(^Enlarged)  ]|  Very  Small,   only  a  short 

portion    of    the    blade's 
length  next  the  point  can 
be  used.     With   a   curve 
of  longer  radius,  a  greater  length  of  blade  may  be  brought  into 

action.  _ 

Fig.  ro 

Its  teeth  are  of  the  form  shown  by  Fig.  ^m^^m^m^^Mm. 
70,  having  the  square  face  of  the  ripping-  Hf^^^^P^P 
saw,  and  the  point  of  the  cross-cutting-saw. 


36 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


They  are  thus  adapted  for  use  in  any  direction  relative  to  the 
grain  of  the  wood. 

Appliances  for  Saw  Filing  and  Setting. 

58.   A  "  Triangular  Saw  File "  ^  is  of  the  form  shown  by 
Fig.  71.     A  "slim"  saw  file  is  represented  by  Fig.  72;  it  is 


Fig.  r3 


Fig.  -r^r 


two  inches  longer  than  a  "regular"  saw  file  of  the 
same  cross-section.  A  "double  ender"  is  shown  by 
Fig.  73,  and  a  cross-section  of  all  saw  files,  on  an  en- 
larged scale,  by  Fig.  74. 

59.    Saw  Sets.  —  Fig.  75  shows  a  simple  form  of  set. 
The  tooth  to  be  bent  is  placed  on  the  surface  A,  with     gJi^. 


^  Frequently  called  "  three-square  saw  file.' 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


37 


the  adjacent   teeth  in  contact  with  B,  B.     Thus  placed,  the 

blade  is  allowed  to   rest 

on  the  screw  C.     A  blow 

from    a    hammer   on    D 

bends  or  "sets"  the  tooth, 

and  a  spring  returns  D  to 

the  position  shown.^    The 

amount  of  set  is  regulated 

by   the    position    of    the 

screw   C,  and  is  greater, 

the  lower  C  is  fixed.    If  C 

is  raised  to  coincide  with 

the  dotted  line  AE,  the 

tooth  will  not  be  set.     B,  B  can  be  adjusted  to  the  depth  on 

the  tooth  to  which  the  set  is  to  take  effect. 

60.  Swedge  Sets  for  Ripping-Saws,  illustrated  by  Fig.  76, 
are  in  general  use  on  large 
saws  and,  occasionally,  on 
small  ones ;  generally  speak- 
ing, they  do  not  concern  the 
bench-worker.      The   set  is 


^  /?  is  not  well  shown  in  the  engraving.     Since  it  must  act  on  only  one 
tooth  at  a  time,  the  end  X  is  wedge-shaped. 


38 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


driven  against  the  edge  of  the  tooth,  as  shown  by  Fig.  77  ;  by 
using  one  opening  the  center  of  the  tooth  is  forced  back,  as 
at  H\  and  by  use  of  the  other  opening  the  points  are  spread, 
completing  the  work,  as  at  G.  A  tooth  thus  set  is  more 
perfect  in  its  action  than  when  bent,  since  it  cuts  the  full  width 
of  the  kerf. 

61.    Saw  Clamps  are  convenient  for  holding  the  saw  during 


TTij?.  ro 


the  filing  process.  Carpenters  frequently  make  for  themselves 
clamps  similar  to  that  Represented  by  Fig.  78.  It  consists  of 
two  pieces  of  hard  wood  joined  face  to  face  by  two  screws 
(one  near  each  end),  by  means  of  which  the  clamp  may  be 

fastened  rigidly  to  the  blade  of 
the  saw.  It  may  then  be  fast- 
ened in  the  vise  or  held  on 
the  knee  while  the  saw  is  being 
filed.  A  much  better  device  is 
the  saw  clamp  shown  by  Fig. 
79,  which,  while  fastened  to  the 
bench,  so  holds  the  saw  that  it 
may  be  turned  in  almost  any 
direction,  thus  enabling  the 
workman  to  obtain  a  favorable 
light. 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


39 


To  File  and  Set  a  Saw. 

62.  Top- Jointing. — With  the  saw  clamped  teeth  up,  joint, 
it  by  running  a  file  along  the  tops  of  the  teeth,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  80.  This  is  done  to  bring  all  the  teeth  to  the  same  height, 
and  also  to  maintain  the  form  of  the  saw,  which,  along  the 
line  of  the  teeth,  should  be  slightly  con-  Fig.  so 

vex.  The  jointing  should  leave  a  small 
facet  on  each  tooth,  which  will  be  rec- 
tangular in  a  ripping-saw  and  triangular 
in  a  cross- cutting- saw. 

63.  Setting.  —  Beginning  at  one  end,  bend  outward  every 
second  tooth,  then  turn  the  saw  and  bend  the  remaining  teeth 
toward  the  opposite  side  of  the  blade.  In  the  case  of  the  rip- 
ping-saw, if  the  swedge  set  is  used,  the  setting  should  be  done 
before  jointing. 

64.  Filing.  —  It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  saw  be 
properly  supported  during  the  operation  of  filing.  An  unusual 
amount  of  noise  shows  that  the  blade  is  not  properly  clamped, 
or  that  the  file  is  not  being  properly  handled ;  it  is  also  a  sure 
indication  that  the  filing  is  not  going  on  as  fast  as  it  might,  and 
that  the  file  is  being  injured.  If  the  file  is  new,  let  the  pres- 
sure be  very  light.  Carry  it  across  the  work  with  a  slow,  steady 
movement.  Never  take  short,  quick  strokes,  as  but  little  will 
be  done  in  this  way,  and  the  file  will  suffer  beyond  repair.  In 
fifing  a  ripping-saw,  the  movement  should  be 
exactly  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  blade, 
as  indicated  by  plan.  Fig.  81,  and  the  outline 
of  the  teeth  maintained  by  an  even  contact,  as 
shown  by  the  elevation  in  the  same  figure.  But 
if  the  form  of  the  teeth  is  to  be  changed,  the  file 
must  be  turned  either  in  the  direction  indicated 
by  the  arrow.  Fig.  81,  or  in  the  opposite  direction. 

In  filing  a  cross- cutting- saw,  the  angle  between  the  file  and 


PLAN. 


40 


BENCH   WORK    IN    WOOD. 


SIDE  ELEVATION 


END  ELEVATION. 


the  blade  must  be  varied  in  accordance  with  the  following  con- 
siderations :  first,  the  outline  of  the  teeth  may  be  preserved 
or  changed  in  the  manner  just  described  in  connection  with 
the  ripping-saw;  secondly,  the  angle  of  the  advancing  face 
{e^efy  Fig.  64)  is  determined   by  the   inclination  of  the   file 

to  the  blade,  as  shown 
by  the  plan,  Fig.  82 ; 
thirdly,  the  angle  of  the 
point  {iaj,  Fig.  64)  is 
determined  by  the  incli- 
nation of  the  file  to  the 
blade,  as  shown  by  the 
end  elevation.  Fig.  82. 
The  form  of  the  teeth 
having  been  decided 
upon  from  principles  already  given,  it  may  be  produced  without 
difficulty  by  attending  to  the  foregoing  directions. 

In  filing  any  of  the  teeth  herein  discussed,  the  file  should 
always  be  in  gentle  contact  with  the  face  of  one  tooth,  as  ^, 
Fig.  81,  while  most  of  the  cutting  is  done  on  the  back  of  the 
next  one  a,  which,  as  usually  considered,  is  the  tooth  that  is 
being  filed.  This  tooth  should  be  one  which,  by  its  set,  bends 
away  from  the  operator.  Beginning  at  one  end  of  the  blade, 
he  files  every  second  tooth  until  the  opposite  end  is  reached, 
when  the  blade  is  turned,  and  the  remaining  teeth  filed  from 
the  other  side. 

No  saw,  even  though  the  teeth  are  not  bent,  should  be  filed 
wholly  from  one  side,  for  the  file  turns  a  slight  edge,  or  bur ; 
and,  since  this  increases  the  set,  it  should  be  evenly  distributed 
on  both  sides  of  the  blade. 

The  filing  on  each  tooth  should  continue  until  the  facet 
produced  by  the  jointing  disappears.  After  this  is  accom- 
plished, a  single  stroke  will  make  the  tooth  receiving  it  lower 
than  the  others.     To  avoid  this,  it  will  be  found  best  to  leave 


BENCH   TOOLS. 


41 


the  teeth  filed  from  the  first  side  a  Httle  dull,  for,  in  filing  the 
intermediate  teeth  after  the  saw  has  been  turned,  the  advancing 
faces  of  the  others  (the  teeth  first  filed)  are  somewhat  reduced. 
After  every  tooth  has  been  passed  over,  if  dull  points  are  still 
to  be  seen,  they  may  be  sharpened  from  either  side  as  their 
proportions  may  dictate.  Regularity  in  the  size  and  form  of 
the  teeth,  and  a  similarity  of  appearance  when  viewed  from 
either  side  of  the  blade,  are  the  tests  of  good  workmanship. 


65.  Side- Jointing.  —  Usually,  when  the  fil- 
ing is  finished,  the  saw  is  ready  for  use,  but  it 
will  cut  more  smoothly  if  it  is  jointed  on  the 
sides  of  the  teeth.  In  Fig.  83,  B  is  side- 
jointed,  the  surfaces  produced  agreeing  with 
the  dotted  lines ;  A  is  not  side-jointed. 

Side-jointing  may  be  accomplished  by  use 
of  either  a  file  or  an  oilstone.  It  is  always 
necessary  after  a  swedge  set  has  been  used. 


Fig.  83 


Planes  and  Plane- like  Tools 

66.  The  plan  and  the  section.  Fig.  84,  show  a  smooth-plane. 
The  stock  ^,  when  of  wood,  is  usually  of  beech.  In  it  is  an 
opening,  or  "  throat,"  b,  which  receives  the  i^ig.  84 


iron  c ;  this  is  held  in  place  by  the  wedge  d.     A-f?- 


The  lower  part  of  the  opening  is  called  the 
mouth  ;  and,  as  shown  by  the  figure,  the  shav- 
ing passes  into  the  mouth,  and  out  through 
the  throat.  The  bottom  of  the  plane,  which  rests  upon  the 
work,  is  called  its  "  face."  The  iron  usually  stands  at  an  angle 
of  45  degrees  with  the  face. 

The  bench-worker's  set  of  planes  comprises  a  smooth-plane, 
Fig.  85,  which  is  about  8"  in  length;  a  jack-plane,  P'ig.  86, 
which  is  from  12"  to  14"  in  length;  a  fore-plane.  Fig.  87,  from 
22"  to  26"  in  length ;  and  a  jointer,  from  28"  to  30"  in  length. 


Section  A  B. 


42 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


Similar  purposes  are  served  by  the  jointer  and  the  fore-plane, 
the  former  being  unnecessary  except  for  large  surfaces  that  are 
to  be  planed  with  accuracy. 


Fig.  SB 


86 


Fig.  ST 


Fig.  89 


67.  The  Length  of  the  Plane-Stock  determines,  in  a  measure, 
the  straightness  of  the  work.     Thus,  a  smooth-plane,  if  used  on 

Fig.  88  an   uneven    surface,  will, 

as  shown  by  Fig.  88^  rise 
^  over  elevated  portions  and 
settle  in  hollows,  taking  its  shaving  without  interruption,  and 
producing  no  great  change  in  the  outline  of  the  surface,  while 

a  fore -plane  or  jointer 
similarly  applied  will,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  89,  cut 
only  on  the  higher  parts, 
and  by  so  doing,  produce  an  even  surface. 

The  stock  of  a  smooth-plane  is  made  short  so  that,  by  its  use, 
a  surface  may  be  smoothed  without  incurring  the  necessity  of 
straightening  it. 

The  fore-plane  will  smooth  as  well  as  the  smooth-plane,  but 
not  until  it  has  first  straightened  the  surface. 

The  jack-plane  is  used  for  cutting  heavy  shavings,  and  its 
length  bears  no  relation  to  the  character  of  the  work  expected 
of  it,  but  is  such  as  will  enable  the  workman  to  grasp  it  easily 
and  firmly. 

68.  A  "Plane-Iron"^  for  a  wooden  plane  is  of  iron  overlaid 
in  part  with  steel.  Its  cutting  edge  is  maintained  in  precisely 
the  same  way  as  that  of  a  chisel.     See  47  and  48.     The  angle 


1  Known  also  as  "  plane-bit. 


BENCH   TOOLS. 


43 


Fig.  90 


of  the  cutting  wedge,  however,  for  all  except  the  jack-plane 
may  be  more  acute. 

69.  The  outline  of  the  cutting  edge,  unlike  that  of  the  chisel, 
is  never  straight,  being  for  the  jack-plane  slightly  curved,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  90,  and  for  the  smooth-plane  p-ig.  91 
and  fore-plane  (also  for  the  jointer)  of  the 
form  shown  by  Fig.  91.  Being  used  for 
heavy  work  and  frequently  removing  shav- 
ings as  thick  as  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch, 
the  jack-plane,  if  its  cutting  edge  were 
straight,  would  produce  in  the .  work  at 
each  stroke  a  rectangular  channel  from 
which  the  shaving  must  be  torn  as  well  as  cut.  Such 
a  shaving  would  be  likely  to  stick  fast  in  the  throat 
of  the  plane,  or,  under  most  favorable  conditions, 
would  require  a  large  amount  of  force  for  its  removal. 
A  shaving  removed  by  the  iron  represented  by  Fig. 
90,  however,  is  not  rectangular  in  section,  but  thick 
in  the  middle,  tapering  gradually  to  nothing  at  the  edges. 
This  form  of  iron  is  best  adapted  to  the  removal  of  a  large 
amount  of  material  at  a  stroke,  but  it  leaves  a  succession  of 
grooves  upon  the  work  which  must  be  smoothed  off  by  another 
plane. 

.70.  The  form  of  the  cutting  iron  in  the  smooth-plane  and 
the  fore-plane,  as  shown  by  Fig.  91,  is  straight  throughout  the 
greater  portion  of  its  width,  and  slightly  rounded  at  the  corners. 
The  objections  urged  against  the  use  of  such  an  iron  as  this  in 
the  jack-plane,  do  not  apply  to  its  use  in  the  smooth-plane  or 
the  fore-plane,  because  the  jack-plane,  to  fulfil  its  office,  must 
remove  a  heavy  shaving ;  the  smooth-plane  or  the  fore-plane, 
unless  the  surface  ppon  which  it  acts  is  very  much  narrower 
than  the  width  of  the  plane,  is  required  to  remove  a  shaving 
whose  thickness  rarely  exceeds  that  of  a  sheet  of  paper.     The 


44 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


groove  caused  by  the  removal  of  so  delicate  a  shaving,  is  suf- 
ficiently blended  with  the  general  surface  of  the  work,  by  the 
rounded  corners  of  the  iron. 

71.  If  a  rough  board  is  to  be  made  smooth,  or  if  a  consider- 
able amount  of  material  is  to  be  removed  to  bring  a  piece  of 
wood  to  size,  most  of  the  surplus  stock  should  be  taken  off  by 
the  jack-plane,  after  which  the  smooth-plane  should  be  used  to 
give  the  surface  desired.  If  the  finished  surface  is  to  be  straight 
as  well  as  smooth,  the  fore-plane  should  follow  the  jack-plane. 
It  is  never  necessary  to  follow  the  jack-plane  with  both  the 
smooth-plane  and  the  fore-plane. 


72.  The  Cap. 

Fi 


A  supplementary  iron,  or  "  cap,"  shown  by 
)Q  c,   Fig.   92,  is   fastened   to 

most  plane-irons.  Its  use 
is  well  illustrated  by  the 
two  sections,  Figs.  93  and 
94.  The  single  iron  will 
do  smooth  work  as  long  as 
the  grain  of  the  wood  is  favorable,  as  shown  at  a.     When  the 


grain  becomes  obstinate,  as  at  b,  the  shaving,  by  running  up  on 
the  iron,  acquires  a  leverage  which  causes  it  to  split  in  advance 


BENCH   TOOLS. 


45 


of  the  cutting  edge,  below  the  reach  of  which  it  breaks,  leaving 
a  surface  extremely  rough.  The  office  of  the  cap  is  to  break 
the  shaving  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  cut.  Fig.  94,  and  thus 
prevent  a  gain  of  leverage  on  its  part. 


The  distance  at  which  the  cap  is  set  from  the  edge  of  the 
iron,  must  vary  with  the  thickness  of  the  shaving  taken.  For  a 
smooth-plane  or  a  fore-plane,  a  thirty-second  of  an  inch  is  fre- 
quently not  too  close,  while  for  a  jack-plane  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  may  not  be  too  great  a  distance. 

A  cutting  iron  and  cap  together  are  frequently  spoken  of  as 
a  "  double  iron." 


73.  Narrowness  of  Mouth  in  a  plane  is  the  chief  element 
in  the  production  of  smooth  surfaces.  If,  in  Fig.  94,  that  por- 
tion of  the  stock  in  advance  of  the  iron,  marked  r,  were  want- 
ing, the  shaving,  having  nothing  to  hold  it  down,  would  rarely 
be  broken,  notwithstanding  the  presence  of  the  cap.  A  wide 
mouth  would  produce  a  similar  effect.  This  being  true,  what- 
ever other  conditions  there  may  be,  the  wider  the  mouth  is, 
the  less  frequently  the  shaving  will  be  broken  and,  in  obstinate 
grain,  the  rougher  will  be  the  work. 


46  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

74.  To  Adjust  the  Iron.  — To  set  the  iron  deeper,  so  that 
a  heavier  cut  may  be  taken,  strike  it  a  light  blow,  as  indicated 
by  the  arrow  e,  Fig.  84.  If  a  lighter  cut  is  required,  strike  the 
stock  as  indicated  by  the  arrow  /  When  the  iron  is  in  the 
right  position,  a  light  blow  ivill  tighten  the  wedge.  To  remove 
the  iron  and  wedge,  turn  the  plane  over  so  that  the  face  is 
uppermost,  grasp  the  iron  and  wedge  with  the  right  hand,  hold 
the  back  end  of  the  plane  between  the  thumb  and  finger  of  the 
left,  and  strike  the  stock  at  /  upon  the  surface  of  the  bench. 
A  single  blow  is  usually  sufficient. 

Never  strike  the  plane  while  it  is  resting  on  the  bench  or  any 
support  that  is  firm.  It  should  be  held  in  the  hand  clear  of 
everything ;  but,  if  this  is  not  convenient,  one  end  may  rest  on 
the  knee. 

To  set  the  iron  in  a  wooden  plane,  hold  the  stock  in  such  a 
way  that,  while  the  face  rests  on  the  hand,  the  end  of  the  fore- 
finger may  extend  across  the  mouth.  Put  the  iron  in  place, 
allowing  its  cuuing  edge  to  rest  on  the  forefinger,  which  should 
keep  it  from  projecting.  Insert  the  wedge,  push  it  down  with 
the  thumb,  and  by  a  light  blow  with  the  hammer  drive  the  iron 
down  until  its  projection  beyond  the  level  of  the  face  is  equal 
to  the  thickness  of  the  shaving  that  the  plane  is  to  take  ;  a  sin- 
gle tap  on  the  wedge  will  then  tighten  the  iron  in  place.  The 
distance  that  the  iron  projects,  can  easily  be  determined  by 
sighting  along  the  face  of  the  plane. 

The  wedge  must  not  be  driven  too  hard,  for  a  plane  may  be 
so  distorted  by  a  hard-driven  wedge  as  to  make  it  incapable  of 
doing  good  work.  The  iron  will  be  held  in  place  even  when 
the  wedge  is  so  loose  that  it  may  be  drawn  out  with  the  fingers. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  wooden  plane-stocks  are  made 
from  material  little  affected  by  atmospheric  influences,  they 
will  warp  enough,  especially  when  nearly  new,  to  bring  the  face 
considerably  out  of  a  true  plane.  When,  from  this  cause,  the 
plane  fails  to  do  good  work,  it  must  be  jointed. 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


47 


F 

ig.  05 

la.  i  ;•;  .| 

WINDING 

r,'7 

STICK 

«; 

:;:.  /; 

WINDING 

■'■i'  ■ 

STICK 

,.      6 

75.  To  Joint  a  Plane,  fasten  it  in  a  vise  with  the  face  up 
and  the  front  end  to  the  right.  The  iron  should  be  in  place,  the 
cutting  edge  well  back  within  the  mouth, 
and  the  wedge  driven  as  for  work.  It  is  now 
necessary  to  determine  whether  the  plane 
to  be  jointed  is  twisted  or  not  (97).  Ap- 
ply two  parallel  strips,  or  "winding-sticks," 
(the  longer  legs  of  two  framing-squares  will 
answer),  one  across  each  end  of  the  plane, 
as  indicated  by  Fig.  95.  After  making 
sure  that  they  are  parallel,  sight  across  one 
to  the  other.  As  the  eye  is  lowered,  if  the 
one  farther  away  is  lost  sight  of  all  at  the 
same  time,  the  plane  is  "  out  of  wind,"  and 
needs  only  to  be  straightened ;  but,  if  one 
end  of  the  straight-edge  that  is  farther 
from  the  eye,  disappears  before   its  other  .  elevation. 

end,  as  in  the  elevation.  Fig.  95,  it  is  evident  that  the  two 
corners  a  and  b,  diagonally  opposite,  are  high,  and  more  must 
be  taken  from  them  than  from  the  other  corners.  With  this 
understanding,  the  fore-plane  or  the  jointer  may  be  applied 
until  the  plane  is  jointed,  that  is,  until  the  face  is  a  true 
plane. 

During  the  planing  process,  frequent  tests  must  be  made 
with  the  parallel  strips,  to  make  sure  that  the  high  corners 
are  being  brought  down  properly.  In  the  early  stages  of 
the  work,  the  try-square  may  be  used  occasionally  to  keep 
the  face  as  nearly  as  may  be  at  right  angles  to  one  side, 
and  the  straightness  of  the  face  may  be  determined  either 
by  sighting  or  by  use  of  the  framing-square  as  a  straight- 
edge. A  true  face  having  been  produced,  the  sharp  angles 
between  it  and  the  two  sides  should  be  changed  to  slight 
chamfers,  inasmuch  as  the  sharp  edges,  if  not  removed,  are 
likely  to  splinter  off. 


48  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

A  few  drops  of  lubricating  oil  rubbed  on  the  newly- 
planed  surface,  will  prevent  wear  and  keep  shavings  from 
sticking. 

Wooden  bench  planes  have  had  their  day,  and  are  going  out 
of  use. 

76.   Iron  Bench  Planes  possess  the  general  characteristics  of 
Fig.  oG  the  wooden  ones,  but  are  superior 

to  them  in  several  respects.  They 
are  always  perfectly  true  and,  there- 
fore, never  require  jointing.  The 
cutting  "  iron,"  which,  in  this  case, 
is  not  of  iron  at  all,  but  of  steel,  is  much  thinner  than  that  in 
v/ooden  planes,  and  is,  therefore,  more  readily  sharpened.  Its 
greater  thinness  is  made  possible  by  the  thorough  manner  in 
which  it  is  supported.  It  may  be  set  and  accurately  adjusted 
in  a  very  short  time. 

The  arrangement  of  parts  in  Bailey's  iron  planes  may  be 
understood  by  reference  to  Fig.  96,  which  represents  a  jack- 
plane.  The  "  wedge  "  A  is  of  iron  of  the  form  shown ;  it 
admits  the  screw  E  through  an  enlargement  of  a  short  slot,  and 
drops  down,  allowing  E  to  take  effect.  By  a  movement  of  the 
clamp  B,  the  wedge  A  is  made  to  press  upon  the  iron  near  its 
cutting  edge,  while  the  clamp  presses  against  it  at  F.  The 
screw  E  is  never  moved.  The  cutting  iron  is  adjusted  for 
depth  of  cut  by  the  action  of  the  thumb-screw  V,  which,  when 
turned  in  one  direction,  moves  the  iron  downward,  and  when 
its  motion  is  reversed  moves  it  upward. 

Thus  a  single  movement  of  B  releases  the  wedge  and  iron, 
and  a  reverse  movement  secures  them  again,  while  D  furnishes 
a  ready  and  positive  means  for  adjusting  the  cutting  edge  with 
a  degree  of  delicacy  which  it  is  impossible  to  attain  in  wooden 
planes.  These  planes,  all  having  the  same  adjustments,  are 
made  in  every  size. 


BENCH   TOOLS. 


49 


ITig.  o 


77.   Planes  of  Wood  and  Iron  Combined 

may  be  had,  made  up  of  the  Bailey  move- 
ments mounted  in  a  suitable  frame,  to  which 
a  wooden  face  is  fastened.  Fig.  97  shows 
a  Stanley  combination  smooth-plane. 


78.  A  Circular-Plane  has  a  thin  steel  face,  straight  when 
free,  but  capable  of  having  its  ends  thrust 
down  or  drawn  up,  thus  making  the 
face  concave  or  convex,  and  adapting  it 
to  work  on  an  outside  or  an  inside  curve. 
Fig.  98  shows  a  Bailey's  adjustable  cir- 
cular-plane. 

79.  Block-Planes  are  small,  and  are  intended  for  use  chiefly 
on  end  grain.  They  generally  have  a  single  inverted  iron, 
which  turns  the  shaving  on  the  bevel  mig.  00 
instead  of  on  the  face  of  the  iron. 
They  have  many  different  forms,  from 
among  which  Fig.  99  has  been  selected 
as  a  type.  In  this  plane  the  throat  may  be  made  narrow 
or  wide  as  is  desired ;  the  adjustment  is  controlled  by  the 
screw  A. 

80.  Spokeshaves  have  the  action 
of  planes,  but  are  not  usually  classi- 
fied with  them.  A  simple  form  is 
shown  by  Fig.  100.  By  the  cross-sec- 
tion it  will  be  seen  that  it  has  almost 
no  guiding  surface  corresponding  to 
the  face  of  a  plane.  This  feature 
adapts  it  to  work  of  irregular  outline. 

81.  Rabbeting-Planes  have  narrow  stocks.  The  cutting 
edge  is  set  in  the  face  of  the  plane  obliquely,  and  the  iron  is 
wide  enough  to  extend  beyond  the  sides  of  the  stock,  as  shown 


50 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


Fig.  lOl 


by  Fig.  loi.  Rabbeting-planes  are  designed  for  use  in 
interior  angles.  The  oblique  position  of  the  iron  produces  a 
shearing  cut  which  promotes  smooth- 
ness in  action. 

The  shaving  of  the  rabbeting-plane 
instead  of  passing  through  the  stock  is 
turned  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  dis- 
charged from  one  side ;  an  arrange- 
ment common  to  matching-planes,  beading-planes,  molding- 
planes,  and  plows  (82,  83,  84,  and  85). 


Fig.  lOQ 


82.    Matching-Planes  are  used  to   form   a   tongue  and  a 
groove,  as  shown  respectively  by  a  and  />,  Fig.  102. 

Wooden  matching-planes,  Fig.  102,  are 
sold  in  pairs,  one  plane  being  fitted  with  a 
single  cutting  edge,  to  form  the  groove,  the 
other  with  a  double  cutting  edge,  to  form  the 
tongue.  Both  are  guided  by  the  "  fence  " 
C,  which  moves  in  contact  with  the  working 
face  of  the  piece  operated  upon.  The 
groove  and  the  tongue  should  both  be  car- 
ried to  as  great  a  depth  as  the  plane  will 
cut. 

An  iron  matching-plane,  designed  to  serve 

the  purpose  of  the  two  wooden  ones,  is  now  in  general  use. 

Its  fence  is  pivoted  to  the  face  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be 

turned  end  for  end ;  in  one  position  two  cutters  are  exposed 

Kig.  103     and  the  plane   is  adjusted  to   form  the   tongue ; 

when  its  position  is  reversed,  the  fence  covers  one 

of  the  cutting  edges,  and  puts  the  plane  in  shape 

for  making  the  groove. 

The  size  of  matching-planes  is  indicated  by  the 
thickness  of  the  material  they  are  intended   to 
VJ      VJ    match. 


BENCH  TOOLS. 


St 


83.  Hollow  and  Round  are  terms  applied  to  such  planes 
as  are  shown  by  A  and  B,  Fig.  103.  They  are  used,  as  their 
forms  suggest,  in  producing  hollows  and  in  rounding  projecting 
edges.  Their  size  is  indicated  by  a  number,  or  by  the  width  of 
the  cutting  edge. 

84.  Beading-Planes  are  used  in  forming  beads  (220),  and 
they  may  be  single  or  double,  that  is,  form  one  or  two  ki-.  104 
beads  at  a  time.  For  beading  on  the  edge  of  work, 
they  are  provided  with  a  fence,  A,  Fig.  104.  For 
use  away  from  the  edge,  they  are  made  to  form  three 
_  or  more  beads  at  the  same  time,  and  have 

nno  guide,  in  which  case  they  are  known  as 
reeding- planes,  Fig.  105.     The  first  three 
beads  are  made  with  the  plane  guided  by  a  straight- 
edge temporarily  fastened  to  the  surface  of  the  work ; 
the  remainder  are  formed   by  using  those  already 
made  as  a  guide,  the  plane  being  moved  into  new 
work  at  the  rate  of  only  one  bead  at  a  time.     Other 
beading-planes,  more  complicated  than  those  described,  are  con- 
structed on  much  the  same  principle  as  a  plow.     The  size  of  a 
beading-plane  is  indicated  by  the  width  of  the  bead  it  will  form. 

85.  Plows  are  used  in  making  rectangular  slots  or  "  plows  " 
of  any  width,  depth,  and  distance  from  the  working-edge  of 
the  material.  The  width  of  the  cut  is 
ordinarily  determined  by  the  width  of 
the  iron  used.  A  set  of  irons  is  sup- 
plied with  the  tool,  which  is  shown  by 
Fig.  106.  A  plow  wider  than  the 
widest  iron  can,  of  course,  be  made 
by  going  over  the  work  a  second  time. 
The  depth  of  the  cut  is  regulated  by 
a  little  shoe  (not  shown),  which  is  raised  or  lowered  by  the 
screw  A.     When  this  is  adjusted,  th,e  tool  can  be  used  until 


iTig.  loe 


52  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

the  lower  surface  of  the  shoe  comes  in  contact  with  the  face 
of  the  work,  after  which  the  cutting  ceases.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  the  full  depth  is  reached  at  all  points  along  the 
length  of  the  work.  The  distance  between  the  groove  and  the 
working-edge  is  regulated  by  the  fence  B,  which  is  adjusted 
by  nuts  C  acting  on  the  screws  D.  When  ready  for  use,  the 
fence  should  be  parallel  to  the  narrow  iron  face-piece  E. 

86.  Combination  Planes  which  may  be  used  in  place  of  the 
plow,  beading-plane,  rabbeting- plane,  etc.,  are  found  on  the 
market,  and  many  of  them  are  serviceable  tools. 

87.  Scrapers.  —  Hand-scrapers  are  made  of  saw-plate  —  ma- 
Fig,  lor  terial  of  about  the  thickness  of  a  panel- 
saw  blade,  and  having  the  same  degree  of 
hardness.  They  are  usually  rectangular, 
and  about  4"  X  5",  but  may  be  of  almost 
any  size  and  shape.  The  cutting  edge  is 
most  easily  formed  by  the  production  of 

a^ .iililL jb   a  surface   at  right  angles    to    the    sides, 

as  indicated  by  ab,  Fig.  107,  thus  giving 
two  cutting  angles,  cef  and  dfe.  When  a  more 
acute  cutting  edge  is  desired,  the  form  shown  by  ^^^'  ^^^ 
Fig.  108  may  be  adopted  j  but,  as  a  rule,  there 
is  little  gained  by  the  keener  cutting  edge,  and 
double  the  labor  is  required  to  keep  it  sharp. 
Scrapers  are  sharpened  by  filing  or  grinding.  If 
smooth  work  is  to  be  done,  the  roughness  of  the 
edge  may  be  removed  on  an  oilstone,  but  the 
rougher  edge  will  cut  faster  and,  generally,  will 
be  more  satisfactory. 

Fig.  109  Fig.   109  shows  a  scraper  mounted   some- 

what like  a  plane.  The  scraper  blade  A,  by 
means  of  the  two  nuts  B,  B,  may  be  changed 
from  a  position  inclined  to  the  face,  as  shown, 
to  one  perpendicular  to  the  face. 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


53 


JCCCCCC: 


Boring  Tools. 

88.    Augers.  —  Fig.   iio  shows  a  double-twist  spur  auger^ 
a  form  generally  used  by  carpenters.  -p,^    ^^^ 

They  are  made  in  sizes  varying  from 
•J"  to  4"  (in  diameter),  but  are  not 
much  used  below  i".  The  spur  A, 
Fig.  Ill,  is  in  the  form  of  a  tapered 
screw,  which,  besides  centering  the  auger  in  its  motion,  draws  or 
"feeds  "  it  into  the  work.  The  two  nibs  B,  B  score  the  work, 
and  the  lips  C,  C  cut  and  remove  the  shavings,  which  are  carried 

Fig.  Ill 
B 


to  the  surface  by  the  screw-like  action  of  the  body  of  the  tool. 
Fig.   112  shows  part  of  a  single-twist  auger  which,  as  will 
be  seen,  has  but  a  single  nib  B,  and  a  single  cutting  lip  C, 
The  cuttings  are  thrown  into  the  center  of  the  hole,  and  de- 
Fig.  112 


livered  easily  by  this  auger,  and,  in  this  respect,  it  is  superior 

to  the  double-twist,  which  crowds  the  cuttings  to  the  outside 

of  the  hole,  where  they  are  likely  to  become  jammed  between 

the  tool  and  the  work.     This  characteristic  of  the  single-twist 

auger  particularly  adapts 

it  to  the  boring  of  deep 

holes.    "  Ship  augers  "  are 

of   this   kind,    and   have 

handles  like  the  one  shown  by  Fig.  113.     This  form  of  handle 


Fig.  113 


-KfaK#iMMSMQ^ 


lT 


54  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

has  the  advantage  of  allowing  the  use  of  both  hands,  without  the 
interruption  experienced  in  using  the  one  illustrated  by  Fig.  no. 
Augers  are  seldom  required  by  the  bench -worker,  but  are 
presented  here  because  of  their  relation  to  other  boring  tools. 

8g.  Auger-Bits. — The  auger-bit  most  in  use  is  shown  by 
Fig.  114.     It  is  sold  in  sets  of  thirteen  bits  each,  varying  in 

size  by  sixteenths,  from  \" 
to  i".  Each  bit  is  marked 
by  a  small  figure  on  the 
shank,  which  indicates  its 
size  in  the  scale  of  sixteenths.  Thus  the  figure  9  is  to  be  inter- 
preted as  y\". 

90.  Augers  and  auger-bits  are  sharpened  by  filing.  The 
scoring  nib  B,  Figs,  in  and  112,  which  is  usually  the  first  part 
to  become  dull,  should  be  filed  wholly  from  the  inside.  If 
filed  on  the  outside,  the  diameter  of  the  cut  it  makes  will  be 
smaller  than  that  of  the  body  of  the  bit.  The  cutting  Hp  C 
should  be  sharpened  from  the  lower  side,  the  file  being  inclined 
to  preserve  the  original  angle.  With  the  spur  in  good  order, 
whenever  the  tool  refuses  to  "feed,"  it  is  clear  that  the  bit 
needs  sharpening  somewhere. 

91.  Center-Bits  are  convenient  for  boring  holes  of  large 
diameter  in  dehcate  material,  such  as  would  be  likely  to  spht 
under  the  action  of  an  auger-bit.     By  reference  to  Fig.  115,  it 

will  be  seen  that  the  spur  A, 

Fig.  115  ' 

^     w.^  which  centers  the  bit  in  the 


•^^^^ ~~ '^"^^        '    work,  is  triangular  in  section. 

This  form  allows  the  bit  to  feed 
rapidly,  or  very  slowly,  in  accordance  with  the  degree  of  pres- 
sure applied  to  it.  The  point,  or  "nib,"  B  cuts  the  fibers  about 
the  proposed  hole,  and  the  cutting  lip  C  removes  the  material. 
The  center-bit  does  not  work  well  in  end  grain.  When  dull  it 
may  easily  be  sharpened  by  whetting. 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


55 


Fig. 116 


92.  Expansive  Bits  are  so  constructed  as  to  be  adjust- 
able for  holes  of  any  size,  within  certain  limits.  There  are 
several  forms  in  use,  one  of  which  is  shown  by  Fig.  116. 
This,  without  the 
movable  cutter  C, 
will  bore  a  hole 
I"  in  diameter,  the 
screw  A  centering 
and  feeding  it  into  the  work,  B  scoring,  and  a  cutting  lip  in 
advance  of  B  (not  shown)  removing  the  shavings.  When  C  is 
inserted  as  shown  in  the  figure,  in  addition  to  the  action  just 
described,  there  is  a  supplementary  action  on  the  part  of  C,  its 
nib,  B\  scoring,  and  its  cutting  edge  removing  the  chips.  The 
cutter  C  is  held  in  place  by  the  screw  D.  By  loosening  Z>,  C 
may  be  moved  from  or  towards  the  center  of  the  bit,  or  taken 
out  altogether,  and  replaced  by  a  cutter  of  different  length.  By 
using  a  short  cutter  in  the  place  of  C,  a  hole  of  any  diameter 
from-  f"  to  2"  may  be  bored,  and  with  the  cutter  shown,  any 
hole  from  2"  to  3"  may  be  bored.  The  range  of  the  bit,  there- 
fore, is  from  |"  to  3". 

93.  Small  Bits.  —  Bits  for  boring  holes  less  than  J"  in  diam- 
eter are  of  many  forms,  but  by  far  the  most  satisfactory  is  the 

"  quill "  bit  shown  by  Fig. 
117.  It  has  no  delicate 
parts  ;  if  carefully  handled 
it  will  not  split  the  mate- 
rial ;  it  enters  the  work  rapidly,  makes  a  round,  smooth  hole, 
and  when  dull  can  easily  be  sharpened  by  whetting  or  grind- 
ing. It  will  not,  however,  work  with  the  grain.  Quill  bits  as 
small  as  y^^"  in  diameter  are  in  common  use. 

Gimlet-bits  are  illustrated  by  Fig.  ti8,  which  represents  one 
of  the  best  forms.    Most  "Fis-  us 

bits  of  this  class  are  too 
weak  to  render  the  ser- 


Fig.iir 


56 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


vice  expected  of  them,  and  soon  become  bent  or  broken.    Thej 
are  likely  to  split  the  work  and  are  not  easily  sharpened. 

94.  Bit-Braces. — The  well-made  wooden  brace,  which  for 
a  long  time  ornamented  the  walls  of  the  cabinet-maker's  shop, 
has  disappeared,  and  the  lighter  and  more  convenient  iron 
brace  is  used  in  its  stead.  A  simple  form  of  iron  brace  is  rep- 
resented by  Fig.  119.  To  insert  a  bit,  grasp  the  sleeve  A  and, 
holding  it  firmly,  turn  the  brace  out  by  using  the  other  hand  on 
B.  When  the  jaws,  C,  are  opened  sufficiently  to  admit  the  bit 
shank,  put  it  in  place,  reverse  the  motion  of  the  hand  on  B,  and 
the  bit  will  be  fastened. 

Fig. 119 


A  ratchet  brace  is  shown  by  Fig.  120.  Its  office  is  to  turn 
the  bit  forward  while  the  brace  itself,  instead  of  making  a  com- 
plete revolution,  has  only  a  forward  and  backward  movement. 
As  represented  by  the  section  AB,  the  frame  c  is  fastened  to 
the  body  of  the  brace  of  which  it  becomes  a  part,  ^  is  a  spindle 
which  terminates  in  the  socket  e,  and  /  is  a  ratchet-wheel, 
which  is  fastened  to  d.  On  each  side  of  the  ratchet-wheel  there 
is  a  pawl  which,  when  free  to  move  in  response  to  the  action  of 
a  spring,  engages  the  notches  in  the  ratchet-wheel  f.  With  the 
pawls  thus  engaged,  the  brace  may  be  used  in  precisely  the  same 
way  as  the  one  already  described.  But,  by  turning  the  ring 
^,  one  of  the  pawls  is  disengaged,  and  the  other  acting  alone 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


57 


will  move  the  spindle  d  only  when  the  brace  is  moving  in  one 
direction,  the  pawl  simply  slipping  over  the  notches  of  the 
ratchet-wheel  when  the  motion  is  reversed.  In  this  way,  a 
bit  may  be  driven  to  any  depth  although  each  movement  of 
the  brace  may  be  less  than  half  of  a  complete  turn.  By  a 
proper  movement  of  the  ring  g,  the  motion  of  the  bit  may  be 
reversed. 

Fig.  ISO 


Section  A  B. 

(Snlargad) 

The  ratchet-brace  is  useful  in  boring  holes  near  walls,  or  in 
corners  where  it  is  impossible  to  turn  a  common  brace. 

The  size  of  any  brace  is  indicated  by  its  "  swing,"  that  is, 
by  the  diameter  of  the -circle  described  by  B,  Fig.  119.  The 
better  class  are  nickel-plated,  and  are  thereby  prevented  frorn 
rusting. 


58 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


95.   A  "Universal,  Angular,  Bit-Stock,"  such  as  is  repre- 
sented by  Fig.   121,  is,  for  many  purposes,  more  useful  than 


Fip;.  isi 


the  ratchet-brace.  The  bit  is  inserted  at  A,  and  a  common 
brace  is  apphed  at  C.  The  mechanical  arrangement  of  the 
parts  is  such,  that,  when  the  brace  turns  the  spindle  C,  the  part 
A  which  holds  the  bit  is  also  turned,  notwithstanding  the  in- 
clination of  one  part  to  the  other.^  Compared  with  the  ratchet- 
brace,  this  has  the  advantage  of  producing  a  continuous  motion 
of  the  bit.  By  its  use  a  hole  may  be  bored  in  the  corner  as 
easily  as  in  the  middle  of  a  room. 

The  angle  of  the  joint  may  be  changed  from  that  shown  to 
one  of  180  degrees,  by  an  adjustment  at  D. 

96.   Automatic  Boring  Tool.  —  A  convenient  substitute  for 
a  brad-awl  is  represented  by  Fig.  122.     The  drill,  or  bit,  A  is 


FiK.  12 


1  Considered  as  a  mechanical  movement,  this  is  known  as  Ilooke's  joint 


BENCH  TOOLS. 


59 


held  in  a  suitable  chuck  C,  at  the  end  of  the  bar  D,  which 
runs  in  B.  The  drill  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  work, 
and  pressure  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow,  slides  B  down  upon 
Dj  and  this  movement  causes  D  with  the  drill  to  revolve.  The 
full  extent  of  the  movement  having  been  reached,  a  relaxing  of 
pressure  leaves  D  free  to  return  to  its  first  position,  as  shown, 
the  rotary  motion  of  A,  meanwhile,  being  reversed.  These 
impulses  can  be  imparted  to  the  drill  with  great  rapidity,  and 
the  work  is  quickly  done.  The  dots  below  the  figure,  122, 
indicate  the  full  diameter  of  the  different  drills  which  are  fur- 
nished with  the  tool. 


Miscellaneous  Tools. 

97.  Winding-Sticks,  or  "parallel  strips,"  are  wooden  strips 
of  any  convenient  length,  the  edges  of  which  are  straight  and 
parallel.  When  applied  to  a  surface,  they  increase  its  breadth 
in  effect,  and  by  thus  giving  a  better  opportunity  of  compari- 
son, show  whether  the  surface  is  "  in  wind,"  or  twisted.  For 
an  illustration  of  their  use,  see  75. 

98.  Hand  Screw-Drivers  are  in  form  similar  to  that  shown 
by  Fig.  123.  The  part  which  is  to  engage  the  screw  should 
have  parallel  sides,  as  shown  by  Fig.  1 24,  and  never  be  wedge- 


Fis»  134 


Fig.  1S3 


shaped.  Fig.  125.  In  the  latter  case,  it  will  be  seen  that  force 
applied  in  an  attempt  to  turn  a  screw,  will  have  a  tendency 
toward  lifting  the  screw-driver  from  its  place. 

A  set  of  three  or  four  screw-drivers,  having  blades  varying  in 


6o 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


size  to  suit  different-sized  screws,  so  that  a  fairly  good  fit  may 
always  be  made,  are  indispensable  to  good  work  where  screws 
^,  are  much  used. 

Fig.  ISG 

99.  Brace  Screw-Drivers,  instead  of  having 
wooden  handles,  are  provided  with  shanks  for 
use  in  a  brace.  A  good  form  is  shown  by 
Fig.  126.  The  brace  gives  a  continuous  mo- 
tion, and 
the  screw 
may     be 

set  much  more  rapidly  by 

its  use  than  with  the  hand  screw-driver.    There  are  many  cases, 

however,  in  which  a  brace  is  useless. 

100.  Hammers. — Fig.  127  shows  a  carpenter's  hammer.  The 
head  A  is  wholly  of  steel.  The  face  B  is  hardened  so  as  not 
to  be  injured  by  repeated  blows  upon  the  nail,  which  is  com- 
paratively soft,  but  the  idea  prevailing  among  inexperienced 
workmen,  that  the  hammer  is  indestructible,  is  a  false  one. 
When  two  bodies  are  brought  together  forcibly,  as  a  hammer 


and  a  nail,  the  softer  body  yields,  and  a  change  takes  place  in 
its  form.  If  the  nail  were  harder  than  the  hammer,  it  would  not 
be  injured,  but  the  hammer  would  show  an  impression  of  the 
nail  head.     Careless  or  ignorant  workmen  sometimes  take  an 


BENCH    TOOLS.  6l 

old  file  for  a  punch  or  a  nail- set,  and  use  a  hammer  upon  it. 
The  file  is  harder  than  the  hammer,  and  the  result  is  that  the 
face  of  the  latter  is  badly  scarred. 

The  claw  C  makes  the  hammer  a  very  effective  tool  for 
withdrawing  nails. 

Hammers  vary  in  size  from  seven  to  twenty  ounces ;  the 
bench-worker  usually  employs  one  weighing  from  fourteen  to 
sixteen  ounces. 

1 01.    The  Hatchet  is  a  useful  tool  for  bringing  large  pieces 

of  material  to  size  roughly,  and   in  skillful  hands  it  may  be 

used  with  accuracy  as  well  as  effect.     When  it  is  compared 

with  the  hammer,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  blade  C,  Fig.  128,  takes 

B 


the  place  of  the  claw  C,  Fig.  127.  As  an  instrument  for  driv- 
ing nails  it  is  clumsy,  and  the  opening  d,  for  withdrawing  nails, 
amounts  to  but  little.  In  sharpening,  the  hatchet  is  ground  on 
both  sides  of  the  blade,  and  whetted  on  an  oilstone. 

102.  Mallets. — The  difference  in  effect  between  a  blow 
given  by  a  hammer  and  one  given  by  a  mallet  is  so  great  that, 
although  similar  in  many  respects,  the  two  tools  are  adapted  to 
widely  different  uses.  A  blow  from  a  hard,  elastic  hammer  is 
sharp  and  decisive,  and  its  force  is  absorbed  almost  as  soon  as 
it  is  received.  Comparatively  speaking,  therefore,  its  effect 
must  be  local.  If  such  a  blow  is  received  on  a  chisel  handle, 
for  example,  a  large  part  of  its  force  is  wasted  in  affecting  the 


62 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


handle,  a  part  only  being  transmitted  through  the  handle  to 
the  cutting  edge,  the  only  place  where  it  can  be  of  use.  A 
blow  from  a  soft,  less  elastic  mallet,  on  the  contrary,  is  more 
general  in  its  effect.  Much  of  the  force  remains  for  an  instant 
stored  in  the  mallet,  by  which  it  is  given  out  somewhat  grad- 
ually, allowing  time  for  the  impulse  to  pass  beyond  the  point 
where  it  is  received.  The  effect  of  two  different  explosive 
agents  will  serve  as  an  illustration.  As  compared  with  nitro- 
glycerine, powder  burns  slowly,  and,  when  put  into  a  rifle  barrel, 
gradually  develops  its  force  upon  the  bullet  until,  when  the  lat- 
ter reaches  the  end  of  the  barrel,  it  has  gained  velocity  enough 
to  carry  it  a  mile  or  more.     But  if  a  charge  of  nitro-glycerine, 


/^mm^m..^ 


having  a  total  explosive  force  no  greater  than  that  of  the  pow- 
der, be  substituted,  the  result  will  be  very  different.  The  rapid- 
ity with  which  nitro-glycerine  burns  —  the  suddenness  of  the 
impulse — is  such  that,  before  the  bullet  can  respond  to  its  influ- 
ence, the  breach  of  the  barrel  is  destroyed. 

The  blow  of  a  mallet  on  a  chisel  resembles  the  action  of 
powder  on  a  bullet.  It  is  a,  pushing  action,  and,  in  this  respect, 
is  unlike  that  of  the  hammer.  A  chisel,  therefore,  will  be 
driven  deeper  into  the  work  by  a  blow  from  a  mallet  than  by 
one  of  the  same  force  from  a  hammer,  while  a  chisel  handle 
which  has  withstood  blows  from  a  mallet  for  years,  may  be 
shattered  in  a  single  hour  by  use  under  a  hammer. 

An  excellent  form  of  mallet  is  shown  by  Fig.  129.  , 


BENCH  TOOLS.  63 

103.  Sand-Paper  is  neither  a  tool  nor  an  appliance,  strictly 
speaking,  but,  on  account  of  its  tool-like  action,  it  should  be 
mentioned  with  them.  The  "sand"  used  in  making  sand-paper 
is  crushed  quartz,  and  is  very  hard,  angular,  and  sharp.  It  is 
graded  as  to  degree  of  coarseness,  by  precipitation,  and  then 
glued  to  paper.  The  finest  sand-paper  is  marked  00,  from  which 
the  gradations  run  o,  -J,  i,  i^,  2,  2^-,  and  3,  which  is  the  coarsest. 

104.  Miter-Boxes  are  useful  in  cutting  the  ends  of  light 
strips  of  wood  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees ;  they  are  frequently 
adapted  to  cutting  at  other  angles.  When  of  wood,  like  the 
one  represented  by  Fig.  219,  they  are  usually  made  by  the 
workman  himself. 

A  wooden  miter-box  is  composed  of  three  pieces  —  a  bot- 
tom and  two  sides.  It  is  necessary  that  the  bottom  piece 
be  uniform  in  width  and  thickness,  and  have  jointed  edges,  and 
it  is  well  to  prepare  the  other  pieces  in  the  same  way.  After 
the  box  is  nailed,  the  sides  should  be  square  with  the  outside 
face  of  the  bottom  piece ;  this  surface  may  now  be  used  as 
a  working-face.  Lay  off  across  the  working-face  two  lines  at  a 
distance  apart  equal  to  the  width  of  the  face,  thus  forming  with 
the  outside  edges  of  the  box,  a  square.  The  diagonals  of  this 
square  will  represent  the  two  oblique  cuts,  one.  marked  r,  and 
the  one  taken  by  the  saw.  Fig.  219.  Project  up  the  sides  such 
lines  from  the  points  thus  fixed,  as  will  be  useful  in  making  the 
cuts ;  the  sawing  is  then  done  with  the  back- saw.  No  special 
directions  are  required  for  laying  oif  the  cut  d, 

105.  Iron  Miter-Boxes  are      *?^^^    j^  Fig.  iso 
now  in  general  use.     The  ac- 
curacy with  which  work  may 
be  done   by  the   use   of  one  .      , 
will  more  than  compensate  any           i2^^i 
bench-worker  for   the   money 
invested  in  it.     Fig.  130  may  be  taken  as  a  type ;  the  work  A 


64 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


is  supported  by  the  frame  as  shown,  while  the  proper  position  of 
the  saw  is  maintained  by  the  uprights  B,  which,  in  the  sawing 
process,  slide  down  into  the  standards  C  The  saw  may  be  set 
at  any  angle  with  the  back  of  the  box  D,  by  swinging  the  frame 
E,  which  supports  the  standards  C ;  ^  is  held  in  position  by  a 
suitable  fastening  operated  by  F. 

1 06.  Bench  Clamps  are  useful  in  holding  two  or  more  pieces 
of  material  together  temporarily.  They  are  particularly  valu- 
able for  keeping  pieces  that  have  been  glued,  in  place  until  they 
are  dry. 

Wooden  clamps,  or  hand-screws,  are  of  the  form  shown  by 
Fig.  131.  The  whole  length  of  the  jaws,  AB  and  A^B\  may 
be  made  to  bear  evenly  upon  the  work,  or  to  bear  harder  at 
certain  points,  as  AA^  or  BB\ 

Iroji  clamps  are  illustrated  by  Fig.  132,  but  the  mechanical 
arrangement  differs  in  different  makes.     Such  clamps  are  very 


Fig.  133 


ITig.  131 


useful  in  many  kinds  of  work,  but,  all  things  considered,  it  ia 
doubtful  whether  they  are  as  serviceable  to  the  bench-worker 
as  the  wooden  ones  just  described. 

107.  Grindstones  are  selected  with  reference  to  their  "  grit." 
A  coarse,  soft-grit  stone  will  remove  material  much  more  rap- 
idly than  one  of  finer  grit,  but  the  surface  produced  will  be 
very  rough  compared  with  that  produced  by  the  other.     Thus, 


BENCH    TOOLS.  6$ 

when  it  is  necessary  to  remove  material  for  the  purpose  of  giv- 
ing shape  to  a  casting  or  forging,  the  coarse,  soft-grit  stone  is 
better ;  but  if  a  smooth  cutting  edge  is  required,  one  of  fine 
grit  should  be  used.  For  wood-working  tools,  a  stone  rather 
fine  and  soft  is  found  best.  The  speed  of  a  power  grindstone 
must  vary  from  500  to  1000  circumferential  feet  a  minute,  de- 
pending upon  its  diameter,  and  the  accuracy  and  steadiness 
with  which  it  runs.  It  may  not  be  well  to  run  a  20"  stone 
beyond  the  minimum  limit,  while  one  of  4'  or  5'  may  give  good 
results  if  run  beyond  the  maximum.  As  a  rule,  a  stone  for 
tool  grinding  is  at  its  maximum  speed  when,  if  run  faster,  it 
would  throw  water  from  its  face. 

By  circumferential  speed  is  meant  the  speed  of  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  stone.  This  is  found  by  multiplying  the  diameter 
of  the  stone,  in  feet,  by  3.1416  (ratio  of  diameter  to  circum- 
ference), which  will  give  the  circumference  of  the  stone,  in  feet, 
and  this  product  by  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute.^ 

^  Example  /.  —  A  4'  stone  is  run  at  30  revolutions  a  minute;  what  is  its 
circumferential  speed? 

The  circumference  of  a  4'  stone  is 

4' X  3-1416=  12.56'. 

This  would  be  the  speed  of  the  stone  if  it  were  to  make  but  i  revolution 
per  minute;   but,  since  it  makes  30  revolutions,  its  speed  \:-> 
12.56'  X  30=  376.80'  or  377'  (nearly). 

Example  II.  —  It  is  desired  that  a  30"  stone  should  have  a  circumferen- 
tial speed  of  280'  per  minute.     How  many  revolutions  should  it  make? 
30"  =  2.5''. 
The  circumference  of  a  stone  2.5'  in  diameter  is 

2.5' X  3-1416  =7.85'. 

This  would  be  the  speed  of  the  stone  if  it  were  to  make  i  revolution  per 
minute.  But  the  circumferential  speed  is  280'  per  minute,  and  therefore 
the  number  of  revolutions  made  must  be 

280' -T- 7.85  =  36   (nearly). 


66  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

1 08.  Water  is  used  on  a  stone  as  a  means  of  carrying  off 
the  heat  resulting  from  friction  between  stone  and  tool ;  it  also 
washes  away  the  particles  of  stone  and  steel  that  come  from 
the  grinding,  and  which,  without  the  water,  would  fill  the  inter- 
stices between  the  cutting  points  of  the  stone,  and  make  the 
surface  so  smooth  as  to  be  useless. 

A  grindstone,  when  not  in  use,  should  not  stand  in  or  over 
water.  *Water  softens  a  stone,  and  one  unequally  exposed  to 
moisture  will  be  found  softest  in  such  places  as  are  most 
exposed.  When  brought  into  use,  the  softer  parts  wear  away 
more  rapidly  than  the  others,  causing  the  stone  to  become  "  out 
of  round."  Water  is  best  supphed  from  a  tank,  or  from  service 
pipes,  so  arranged  that  it  may  be  shut  off  when  the  stone  is  not 
running,  the  drip-pan  under  the  stone  being  at  all  times  per- 
fectly drained.  After  every  precaution  has  been  taken,  the 
stone  will  in  time  become  untrue  and  need  attention. 

109.  To  True  a  Grindstone.  —  When  a  stone  becomes 
untrue,  or  the  outline  of  the  face,  which  should  be  slightly  con- 
vex, becomes  concave,  it  may  be  corrected  by  using  a  piece  of 
soft  iron  as  a  turning  tool,  the  stone  being  run  dry.  The  action 
of  the  tool  may  be  explained  as  follows  :  the  soft  iron  allows 
small  particles  of  the  stone  to  imbed  themselves  in  its  surface, 
from  which  position  they  act  against  the  revolving  stone,  and 
the  cutting  is  done  by  these  imbedded  particles  and  not  by  the 
iron.  The  latter  is  worn  in  the  process,  however,  and,  as  its 
cutting  surface  becomes  enlarged,  it  should  be  turned  to  bring 
a  new  angle  or  face  into  action.  This  operation  is  easily  per- 
formed by  using  a  piece  of  gas  pipe  (about  i")  for  a  turning  tool. 

no.  Truing  Devices  are  now  generally  attached  to  power 
grindstones.  They  are  of  several  forms,  of  which  that  shown 
by  Fig.  133  may  be  taken  as  an  example.  The  base  of  this  at- 
tachment is  secured  to  the  grindstone  frame  as  near  the  stone  as 
may  be  convenient.   ^  is  a  hardened  steel  screw  which  revolves 


BENCH   TOOLS.  ^J 

freely  on  its  bearings  B,    The  frame  in  which  B  runs  is  pivoted 

at  C,  in  such  a  way  that  by  a  movement  of  the  hand-wheel 

J),  B  will  move  forward  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow.     By 

adjusting  the  hand-wheel  £>,  A  is  brought  into  contact  with  the 

face  of  the  moving  stone,  and  at  once  Tris.  133 

begins  to  revolve.     The  action  of  its 

thread  would  move  it  endwise,  were 

it  not  prevented  by  its  bearings.    The 

effect  of  this  angular  advancement  of 

the  thread,  which   is  not  met  by  a 

corresponding   lateral    movement    of 

the  parts  in  contact,  is  a  shearing  cut  across  the  face  of  the 

stone.     When  the  screw  becomes  dull  it  may  be  softened  and 

recut. 

111.  Oilstones.  —  The  most  useful  of  all  oilstones  are 
found  near  Hot  Springs,  Arkansas.  They  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  known  to  the  trade  as  the  Arkansas  stone  and  the 
Washita  stone.  The  former  is  of  very  fine  grain,  appearing 
much  like  white  marble.  It  is  used  in  sharpening  the  most 
delicate  instruments,  and  produces  an  edge  of  remarkable 
keenness.  The  Washita  stone  is  much  coarser  in  grain,  with  a 
color  sometimes  almost  white,  but  more  frequently  shaded  by 
lines  of  a  reddish  cast.  It  cuts  with  rapidity,  and  with  much 
greater  delicacy  than  would  be  expected  of  so  coarse  a  stone. 
Probably  no  better  oilstone  exists  for  sharpening  wood-working 
and  similar  tools. 

112.  Oil  is  used  on  an  oilstone  for  the  same  reason  that 
water  is  used  on  a  grindstone.  To  be  serviceable,  it  should  be 
as  free  as  possible  from  all  tendency  to  become  thick  or  gummy. 
A  good  quality  of  sperm  oil,  or  even  lard  oil,  may  be  used ;  olive 
oil  is  frequently  recommended. 

113.  Form  of  Oilstones.  —  It  is  evident  that  if  oilstones 
could  be  made  round,  and  mounted  like  grindstones,  they  could 


68  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

be  used  more  effectively  than  when  only  a  small  block  is  avail- 
able. The  reason  they  are  not  so  mounted  is  that,  in  their 
native  bed,  the  whetstone  layers  are  traversed  in  every  direction 
by  veins  of  hard  quartz,  which,  if  allowed  to  enter  into  a  finished 
stone,  would  destroy  the  cutting  edge  of  any  tool  that  might 
be  applied  to  it.  It  is  so  uncommon  to  find  large  pieces  of 
whetstone  free  from  the  quartz,  that  disks  above  4"  or  5"  in 
diameter  can  be  afforded  only  by  those  to  whose  work  they  are 
indispensable. 

For  bench  purposes,  Washita  stones  are  about  i"  x  2"  x  7"; 

but  no  attempt  is  made  to  have  them 

gig.  134  ^f  g^j^y  uniform  size.    Such  a  stone,  when 

^MjHBHHBIlIM       set  into  a  block  and  provided  with  a 

^^^^^^^P-     cover  to  keep  out  the  dust,  is  ready 

for  use.  See  Fig.  134.  Its  surface 
should  be  kept  as  nearly  as  possible  straight,  in  the  direction  of 
its  length,  and  should  never  be  hollowed  across  its  breadth. 
When  out  of  shape  it  must  be  trued. 

114.  Slips  of  Washita  stone  whose  cross-sections  are  round, 

square,  triangular,   etc.,   are    supplied 
Fig.  135  by  the  trade.      A  wedge-shaped    slip 

is  represented  by  Fig.  135  ;  it  is  a 
form  extremely  useful  to  the  bench- 
worker. 

115.  To  True  an  Oilstone,  mix  water  with  sharp  sand  until 
the  mixture  is  thin  enough  to  run.  Apply  a  quantity  of  this 
to  the  surface  of  a  flat  board  or  plank,  and,  with  the  face  that 
is  to  be  trued  in  contact  with  the  sand-covered  board,  move 
the  stone  about,  frequently  changing  the  direction  of  its  motion. 
Under  this  treatment,  the  surface  of  the  stone  will  be  evened 
up  rapidly.  If  the  sand  that  is  first  applied  becomes  dull,  it 
may  be  replaced  by  new. 


BENCH  TOOLS.  69 

Another,  and  usually  a  more  convenient  way,  consists  in  sub- 
stituting for  the  sand  a  sheet  of  sand-paper  tacked  over  the 
edge  of  the  board.  Coarse  paper  may  be  used  at  first,  and 
afterwards  a  finer  grade  selected  for  finishing  the  work. 


PART  II, 


>J<Kc 


BENCH   WORK. 


ii6.  No  work  at  the  bench  (9-13)  is  more  important  than 
that  relating  to  the  location  and  production  of  lines.  Careless- 
ness or  want  of  skill  in  this  will  always  be  manifest  in  the  fin- 
ished work.  To  the  beginner  it  may  seem  monotonous,  and 
even  hard,  to  stand  at  the  bench  several  hours  before  turning 
a  shaving ;  but  he  must  understand  that  a  scratch  cannot  be 
called  a  line,  and  that  patience  and  accuracy  are  the  chief 
requisites  in  skillful  manipulation. 

117.  Location  of  Points  (14-17).  —  All  measurements  must 
begin  somewhere.  The  greater  the  number  of  points  from  which 
to  begin,  the  more  chances  there  are  for  mistakes.     Thus  in 


1  Note. — The  material,  or  "stock,"  needed  for  the  exercises  of  the 
course  should  be  straight-grained,  free  from  knots,  well-seasoned,  and 
machine-dressed.  A  good  quality  of  either  white  pine  or  yellow  poplar  is 
to  be  preferred.     Good  work  cannot  be  done  in  poor  material. 

By  easy  steps  the  operations  to  be  performed  become  more  and  more 
difficult.  The  student  should  not  advance  to  a  new  exercise  until  the  pre- 
ceding one  has  been  completed  in  a  good,  workman-like  manner.  A  fail- 
ure, unless  the  result  of  accident,  should  invariably  be  followed  by  another 
trial  of  the  exercise.     Otherwise,  a  careless  habit  is  encouraged. 

The  course  may  appear  brief,  but  experience  has  demonstrated  its  com- 
pleteness as  a  preparation  for  constructive  work  in  any  of  the  lines  to 
which  it  leads.  After  the  fifteen  exercises  have  been  finished,  if  time 
remains,  any  ordinary  piece  of  bench  work  may  be  undertaken. 


72 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


measuring  from  E  to  F,  Fig.  136,  there  is  one  chance  for  a  mis- 
take.    If  6^  is  located  by  measuring  from  F,  then  in  the  loca- 

Fig.  13G 


E              ^            Q 

d 

A' 

c 

I 

> 

SIDE  ELEVATION   fFACE  A). 

END  ELEVATION. 

tion  of  G  there  are  two  chances  for  a  mistake, — one  in  locating 
F,  another  in  locating  G ;  but  if  G  is  located  by  direct  meas- 
urement from  £,  there  is,  as  in  the  case  of  F,  but  one  chance 
of  error. 

In  locating  a  point  by  measuring  from  a  point  or  line  already 
jftxed,  it  is  necessary  to  make  some  kind  of  mark  to  indicate 
the  distance.  Haste  in  such  work  frequently  results  in  a  mark 
similar  to  that  shown  at  £,  Fig.  136,  a  "point"  through  which 
a  line  may  be  drawn  with  ease  but  with  doubtful  accuracy.  A 
dot  from  a  sharp  pencil,  as  shown  at  F,  Fig.  136,  is  much 
better ;  but  if  by  reason  of  roughness  of  surface  such  a  dot  is 
too  indistinct,  two  lines  meeting  each  other  at  an  angle  may 
be  used,  G,  Fig.  136,  the  point  of  juncture  indicating  the 
required  location. 

118.  A  Jointed  Face  is  a  surface  that  has  been  made  a  true 
plane.  The  necessities  of  practice  so  often  require  jointed 
faces  at  right  angles  to  an  adjoining  face,  that  to  many  the 
term  has  come  to  mean  not  only  a  true  plane,  but  such  a  sur- 
face at  right  angles  to  another,  from  which  it  is  said  to  have 
been  "jointed." 

119.  A  Working-Face  is  one  selected  as  a  guide  for  opera- 
tions to  be  performed  on  an  adjoining  face.  For  accurate  work 
the  working-face  must  be  jointed.  At  this  face,  all  measure- 
ments have  their  beginning,  and  by  it  all  lines  are  produced.  If 
a  piece  of  material  is  to  receive  lines  on  two  opposite  sides,  as 
A  and  C,  Fig.  136,  either  B  ox  D  may  be  used  as  a  working- 


BENCH    WORK. 


73 


face,  but  not  both ;  if  it  is  to  receive  lines  on  four  faces,  as  A,  B, 
C,  and  D,  two  of  them,  as  A  and  B,  for  example,  must  be  work- 
ing-faces ;  if  on  six  faces,  three  must  be  working- faces.  Foi 
example,  suppose  lines  are  to  be  made  on  the  surface  A,  Fig. 
136,  from  ^  as  a  working-face  ;  those  running  across  the  piece, 
as  ab,  will  then  be  made  perpendicular  to  B,  and  those  running 
lengthwise,  as  cd,  parallel  to  B.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  work- 
ing-face is  disregarded,  and  some  of  the  lines  are  made  from 
B  and  some  from  D,  their  truth  will  depend  not  only  on  the 
truth  of  B  and  D  as  individual  surfaces,  but  also  upon  their 
parallelism,  and  hence  there  is  a  double  chance  of  error.  Only 
one  face,  therefore,  should  be  used  from  which  to  do  the  lining 
for  a  given  surface.  If  Hues  are  to  be  made  on  all  four  sides, 
as  Aj  Bj  C,  and  I?,  and  A  and  B  are  the  working-faces,  all 
lines  on  A  and  C  can  be  made  from  By  and  all  lines  on  B  and 
D  can  be  made  from  A.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  in 
making  a  piece  a  true  square  in  section,  it  is  necessary  to  use 
the  beam  of  the  square  on  only  two  faces. 

EXERCISE   No.  i.  —  Measuring  and  Lining. 

120.  The  stock  required  is  i|  inches  thick,  4  inches  wide, 
and  4  feet  long,  or,  as  usually  written,  i|"  x  4"  X  4'.  Fig.  137 
shows  the  completed  exercise.^  To  aid  in  following  directions, 
it  will  be  well  to  letter  the  four  faces  of  the  work  A,  B,  C,  and 
Z>,  respectively,  as  indicated  by  Fig.  137  (End  Elevation),  and 
to  mark  two  of  them,  as  A  and  B,  working-faces. 

Operations  to  be  performed  on  Face  A,   from  B  as  a 
Working- Face,  Fig.  137. 

121.  Spacing  with  Pencil  and  Rule  (18).  —  By  use  of 
pencil  and  rule,  lay  off  points  a,  1"  apart  along  the  whole 

1  Fig.  137  is  broken  in  accordance  with  the  principles  given  in  6. 


74 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


length  of  the  piece,  the  line  of  points  being  kept  straight  by 
preserving  a  uniform  distance  between  them  and  the  working- 
face  B.  This  distance  may  be  anything  that  is  convenient, 
and  will  be  sufficiently  accurate  if  determined  by  the  eye. 


Scale,    2=l' 

N) 

^ d  - 

^1^ 

\l 

\ 

r~ 

. 

( 

1 

\ 

\ 

u^ 

^x^ 

p^^ 

^1^ 

^% 

^1% 

^1^1- 

^1-V 

«-l''> 

r±r^' 

\     W^^^ 

A 


a    a    a    a    a    a    a    a    a  \a    a    n    a    a 

Working  Face  B. 


—4 


K-l->*<-l- 


J 


X 


g 


Face  A, 

Worldng  Face  A. 


END  ELEVATION. 


^ 


f/d 


irX-4    X\ AX /X /fX-  -^--A^^-^-V-^ .yx T-^X — /X--! — 

./^../l\/l\/tw^.-4^/^/!"7v;^ 


^ 


i^ace  B. 


Oauged  Lines  to  6e  \  apart 


Face  J) 

Working  Face  B, 


Face  C. 


122.    Cross-lining  with  Pencil  and  Framing-Square  (19- 

21).  — The  points  having  been  located,  draw  through  each  a 
line,  as  ad  (Face   A),   using   the   framing-square   and   pencil. 


BENCH    WORK. 


75 


While  a  line  is  being  produced  by  the  outside  of  the  shorter 
leg  of  the  square  be,  Fig.  138,  allow  the  longer  leg  ab  to  drop 
down  so  that  its  inside  edge  may  be  firmly  pressed  against  the 
working-face,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows  d.    When  the  progress 


S^ 


Fig.  138 


1--  ^-5-_r 


la 


Id  Id  ^  »• 

of  the  lining  causes  the  leg  ab  to  project  beyond  the  work  so 
much  as  to  be  imperfectly  guided  by  the  working- face,  as 
shown  at  a}b\  Fig.  138,  its  position  should  be  reversed  as  indi- 
cated by  the  dotted  outline.  This  method  must  be  observed 
in  using  any  similar  tool,  as  the  try-square,  bevel,  etc. 

123.  Chalk-Lining  (36).  —  Lay  off  points  on  lines  ab  and 
ad  ^"  apart,  the  first  point  in  each  case  being  ^"  from  the 
working-face.  Through  the  points  thus  located,  chalk-lines  are 
to  be  made,  as  shown  by  face  A,  Fig.  137. 

Insert  the  awl  at  the  first  point  on  the  Hne  ab,  and  drawing 
the  cord  tight  with  one  hand,  apply  the  chalk  with  the  other, 


beginning  at  the  awl.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  cake  of 
chalk  is  not  cut  to  pieces  by  the  cord.  A  little  practice  will 
make  it  easy  to  hold  the  cord  under  the  thumb  in  such  a  way 
as  to  form  a  small  shoulder  on  the  chalk,  Fig.  139,  which  by 


76 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


the  friction  of  the  cord  will  be  gradually  carried  across  the  face 
of  the  cake  ;  another  is  then  formed  to  take  its  place.  When 
the  cord  has  been  chalked,  stretch  it  over  the  point  on  the  hne 


Fig.  140 


ad  that  corresponds  to  the  point  on  the  line  ab  at  which  the 
awl  is  inserted.  Then  raise  the  cord  near  the  middle  as  shown 
by  Fig.  140,  and  by  suddenly  releasing  it,  cause  it  to  "  snap  " 
on  the  surface  of  the  work.  In  snapping,  the  cord  should  be 
drawn  up  vertically,  for  if  drawn  at  an  inclination  as  shown  by 
a,  Fig.  141,  a  wide  blurred  line  will 
be  produced.  Repeat  this  operation 
for  each  of  the  points,  finishing  face 
A  as  shown.  Each  line  should  be 
clear  and  well-defined.  Try  to  make 
each  one  better  than  the  preceding. 
Never  snap  more  than  once  be- 
tween the  same  points. 


S^ig.  141 


Operations  to   be   performed   on   Face  B,   from  ^  as  a 
Working- Face,  Fig.  137. 

124.  Lining  with  Pencil  and  Try-Square  (22).  —  Hold 
the  beam  of  the  square  firmly  against  the  working-face,  and, 
using  the  outside  edge  of  the  blade  as  a  guide,  continue  across 
face  B  the  lines  on  the  working-face  which  were  made  by  use 
of  the  framing-square.  If  the  work  has  been  well  done,  the 
lines  will  be  sharp,  straight,  and  parallel,  as  shown  by  ab^  cdj 
etc.,  Face  B,  Fig.  137. 


BENCH    WORK. 


17 


125.  Lining  with  Pencil  and  Bevel  (23-25).  — The  bevel 
is  to  be  set  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  and  the  Hnes  ag,fg^ 
etc.,  drawn  from  the  points  made  by  the  intersection  of  the 
lines  already  drawn  and  the  working-face.  Face  A^  Fig.  137. 
Hold  the  beam  of  the  bevel  firmly  against  the  working-face, 
and  use  the  outside  of  the  blade  to  guide  the  pencil.  Let  the 
beam  of  the  bevel  bear  firmly  on  the  working-face. 

126.  "Gauging"  Lines  with  Pencil  and  Rule.  —  These 
lines,  as  ik,  hi,  etc.,  are  to  be  spaced  |"  apart,  as  shown  by 
Face  B. 

Grasp  the  rule  at  a  proper  distance  from  its  end,  in  the  left 
hand,  and  press  the  forefinger  against  the  working-face,  to 
which  the  rule  is  perpendicular,  as  shown  by  Fig.  142.  With 
the  right  hand  apply  the  pencil  to  the  work,  and  at  the  same 
time  press  it  against  the  end  of  the  rule.  In  this  way,  the 
pencil  against  the  rule,  and  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  against 
the  working-face,  move  along  the  length  of  the  work,  thus  pro- 
ducing a  line  parallel  to 
the  woT-king-face.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  lay  off 
points,  since  the  distance 
between  the  pencil  and 
the  edge  can  always  be 
known  by  observing  the 
graduations  of  the  ri.ile. 
In  making  a  hne,  the 
pencil  will  be  more  easily 
kept  in  position  if  con- 
siderable force  is  used  in  pressing  it  against  the  rule ;  to 
prevent  this  force  from  displacing  the  rule,  it  must  be  met 
by  a  greater  force  acting  in  the  opposite  direction.  See  arrows 
c  and  d. 

This  is  a  rapid  method  of  producing  lines  parallel  to  the 
working-face,  where  exactness  is  not  demanded. 


yS  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

Operation  to  be  Performed  on  Face  D  from  ^  as  a 
Working- Face,  Fig.  137. 

127.  Spacing  by  Use  of  Scriber  (37)  and  Rule.  —  Points 
and  lines  made  with  a  pencil,  while  accurate  enough  for  many 
purposes,  are  too  inexact  to  define  the  proportions  of  different 
parts  of  a  joint.  Where  good  fitting  of  any  kind  is  required, 
the  pencil  should  not  be  used,  but  all  points  and  lines  be 
made  with  a  scriber.  The  scriber  should  be  sharp,  and  should 
make  a  clearly-defined  cut,  not  a  dent. 

Using  the  rule,  then,  to  determine  the  distances,  substitute 
the  scriber  for  the  pencil,  and,  following  the  dimensions  given 
(Face  D,  Fig.  137),  lay  off  points  along  the  length  of  the  work 
through  which  the  lines  ad,  cd,  etc.,  are  to  be  drawn. 

128.  Lining  with  Scriber  and  Try-Square.  —  Through  the 
points  already  placed,  scribe  lines,  as  ab,  cd,  etc.,  with  the  try- 
square. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  the  advancing  edge  of  the  scriber 
is  not  turned  out  from  the  square  blade ;  in  such  a  case, 
it  is  Hkely  to  "  run  out "  from  the  square  and  give  a  crooked 
line.  Neither  should  the  scriber  be  turned  in  so  much  as  to 
crowd  the  square  from  its  position.  After  a  little  practice,  lines 
can  be  scribed  easily  and  rapidly. 

129.  Lining  with  Scriber  and  Bevel.  —  Set  the  bevel  at  an 
angle  of  45  degrees  and,  using  it  as  before,  scribe  lines  from 
the  try-square  lines,  as  shown  by  be,  ad,  etc. 

Fig.  143  ^  130.    Gauge-Lining    (32- 

35).  The  gauge  provides  the 
most  ready  means  for' the  ac- 
curate production  of  lines 
parallel  to  a  working-face. 
As  shown  in  Fig.  143,  the 
beam  of  the  gauge  B  carries 


BENCH    WORK.  79 

a  steel  spur  C,  which  does  the  marking.  B  also  carries  a 
head  ,   ,  which  is  adjustable  on  the  beam. 

To  use  the  gauge,  adjust  the  head  so  that  the  distance  be- 
tween it  and  the  spur  C  is  equal  to  that  between  the  working- 
face  and  the  required  line ;  then  close  the  fingers  over  the 
head  and  extend  the  thumb  on  the  beam  towards  the  spur,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  143.  Holding  the  gauge  in  this  manner,  bring 
the  head  against  the  working- face,  move  the  gauge  along  the 
work,  and  the  line  will 

be  produced.     To  pre-  -=-  :Pis.i44 

vent  the  spur  from  stick- 
ing, the  first  stroke 
should  make  a  light  line, 

which  may  be  strength-  \__^'_z.>i^_zi^_-..^^--^^-^''^  '^^  ^-_  > 
ened  by  a  second,  and  ^^^%^^ -_^-^^7^^--Z]j:^^%'y^ 
even  a  third  passing  of 

the  gauge  The  depth  ot  the  line  in  each  case  is  regulated  by 
turning  the  gauge  as  indicated  by  the  relative  position  of  y 
and  X,  Fig.  144.  It  is  obvious  that  no  spacing  is  necessary 
when  this  tool  is  to  be  used. 

By  use  of  the  gauge,  lay  off  ^"  apart  the  lines///,  eg,  etc.. 
Face  Z>,  Fig.  137. 


Operations  to  be   performed  on  Face    C,   from  B  as  a 
Working- Face,  Fig.  137. 

131.  The  lines  on  this  face  are  to  be  used  in  Exercise  No.  3. 
By  applying  the  principles  already  developed  (121,  122)  locate 
the  lines  as  shown  by  the  drawing,  Face  C,  Fig.  137.  This 
work  may  be  done  with  the  pencil,  the  lines  ai>  and  a'^'  being 
"  gauged  "  by  use  of  the  rule  (126).  The  line  cif.  End  Eleva- 
tion, may  be  made  in  the  same  wav. 


8o 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


I 
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I  ( 


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V 


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11/ 


Ill- 


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di 


BENCH    WORK. 


8i 


EXERCISE   No.  2. 
Practice  with   Chisel  and  Gouge  (39,  40,  and  42). 

The  stock  required  is  J"  X  4^"  X  8". 

Fig.  145  shows  the  lines  that  are  needed,  all  of  which  are 
produced  as  explained  in  the  foregoing  exercise,  except  the 
arcs  of  circles,  which  must  be  put  in  with  the  dividers  (26) ; 
A  and  B  are  working-faces.  An  end  elevation  of  the  finished 
piece  is  represented  by  Fig.  146. 

irig.i4o 


132.  To  remove  the  Portion  abc,  Fig.  145.  —  It  is  always 
best,  in  removing  surplus  wood  with  the  chisel,  to  cut  across 
the  grain,  as  any  attempt  to  carry  the  cutting  edge  along 
the  grain  is  quite  sure  to  result  in  a  splitting  action,  the 
chisel  following  the  grain  of  the  wood, 
which  splits  ahead  of  it,  and  pre- 
vents the  operator  from  controlling  its 
course.  In  removing  the  portion  abc, 
the  work  should  be  held  in  the  vise  with 
the  working-face  A  toward  the  operator. 
A  i"  chisel  will  be  found  of  convenient 
size.  Beginning  at  one  end,  make  suc- 
cessive cuts  with  the  chisel,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  147.  Each  stroke  of  the  chisel 
should  cut  almost  to  the  full  depth  re- 
quired {i.e.  remove  a  shaving  from  the 
face  of  nearly  the  whole  triangle  abc), 
the  thickness  of  the  cutting  varying  with 
the  character  of  the  material  and   the 


y 


82 


BENCH   WORK   IN   WOOD. 


Strength  of  the  operator.  It  is  best,  however,  to  go  slowly,  for 
the  chisel  will  not  be  properly  guided  if  the  workman's  whole 
Fig.  148  strength  is  required  to  push  it  through 

the  wood.  The  surface  thus  produced 
will  not  be  smooth,  but  it  will  be  true  to 
the  line.  To  smooth  it,  a  wide  chisel 
should  be  used,  as  shown  by  Fig.  148, 
and  a  longitudinal  movement  imparted 
to  it  at  the  same  time  it  is  being  pushed  forward. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  both  chisels  are  applied  to  the  work 
in  such  a  way  as  to  turn  the  shaving  from  the  bevel,  and  not 
from  the  flat  face.  This  is  done  that  the  flat  face  may  be  avail- 
able as  a  guiding  surface,  which,  when  kept  in  contact  with  the 
solid  material  back  of  the  cut  (see  b.  Fig.  148),  will  -insure 
straightness  in  the  forward  movement  of  the  cutting  edge,  and, 
consequently,  accuracy  of  work. 


ITig.  149 


HM 


133.    To  remove  the  Portion  defg^  Fig.  145. — With  the 

work  flat  on  the  bench,  face  A 
uppermost,  place  a  f "  chisel  so 
as  to  bring  its  cutting  edge  in 
the  position  occupied  by  the 
line  hi,  which  is  about  -|^"  from 
the  end  of  the  work.  With  the 
mallet,  drive  the  chisel  verti- 
cally downward,  as  indicated  by 
Cj  Fig.  149.  When  down  to  the 
depth  of  the  required  cut,  the 
chisel  should  be  pushed  over  to 
the  position  a,  to  make  room 
for  the  next  cut,  after  which  it 
may  be  withdrawn  and  placed 
BMiionAB.  j^  position  again   at   e.       This 

operation  is  to  be  repeated  until  the  whole  length  of  the  piece 


/  f 
/  / 
/a/ 

// 

// 
/  / 


BENCH    WORK.  83 

has  been  passed  over,  making  the  work  appear  as  indicated,  in 
part,  by  Sec.  AB,  Fig.  149.  The  cuttings  may  then  be  re- 
moved. The  sides  of  the  opening  will  be  even  and  fairly 
smooth.  The  distance  the  chisel  is  advanced  (/)  must  de- 
pend on  the  material,  and  the  depth  to  which  it  is  driven ;  it 
should  never  be  so  great  as  to  risk  the  breaking  of  the  chisel 
when  it  is  moved  from  position  c  to  a. 

To  remove  the  portion  j'kon,  Fig.  145.  —  Using  the  chisel  as 
in  the  last  exercise,  remove  the  portion  Jklm,  and  afterwards 
the  portion  Imon. 

134.  To  remove  the  Portion  pqr,  Fig.  145. — This  is  done 
with  the  gouge,  which,  unlike  the  chisel,  may  be  used  with  the 
grain,  as  indicated  by  Fig.  150,  the 

concave  surface  of  the  work  allow- 
ing its  individual  fibers  to  give 
greater  support  to  one  another  in 
resisting  a   splitting  tendency.     It     .^S=^^^II^-Crr--^-J:^^ 

will  be  seen  that  the  bevel  of  the  "^^"" — "'"°'        ^=->^ 

gouge  is  its  only  guiding  surface.  This  being  necessarily  short, 
the  tool  is  a  difficult  one  to  use.  Light  cuts  should  be  taken, 
especially  when  the  grain  of  the  wood  is  not  favorable. 

To  finish  Exercise  No.  2.  —  By  use  of  the  chisel  round  the 
part  between  the  linesy^  and  no,  and  also  the  part  between  the 
point  7n  and  the  line  ks,  to  agree  with  the  finished  form  shown 
by  Fig.  1 46,  and  smooth  all  chiseled  surfaces  not  already  finished. 

EXERCISE   No.   3.  — Sawing  (49-55). 

The  stock  required  is  the  finished  piece  from  Exercise 
No.  I ;  it  is  to  be  cut  as  indicated  by  the  lining  on  Face  C, 
Fig-  137. 

135.  Handling  the  Saw. — The  saw  should  be  grasped 
firmly  with  the  right  hand,  a  better  control  of  it  being  secured 


84 


BENCH   WORK    IN    WOOD. 


by  extending  the  forefinger  along  the  side  of  the  handle.  In 
starting  a  cut,  the  side  of  the  saw  should  be  pressed  against  the 
thumb  of  the  left  hand,  which  then  acts  as  a  guide,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  151.  The  saw  must  not  be  crowded  against  the  work, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  to  prevent  the  teeth  from  penetrating  too 
deeply,  its  forward  movement  should  be  accompanied  by  a  lift- 
ing action  of  the  wrist.  The  saw  should  always  be  moved  with 
a  long  stroke,  bringing  as  many  teeth  into  action  as  possible.  A 
short,  jerky  movement  is  at  no  time  necessary  or  desirable.  It 
is  good  practice  for  the  beginner  to  keep  up  the  proper  motion 
of  the  saw,  while  maintaining  a  very  light  contact  between  it 
and  the  work.  Success  in  this  exercise  is  to  be  measured  by 
uniformity  of  contact  throughout  all  points  of  the  stroke. 

There  are  two  errors  which  are  likely  to  be  made  in  sawing : 
first,  sawing  off  the  line;  and,  secondly,  sawing  at  a  wrong  angle. 


Fig.  151 


Fig.  15Q 


136.  To  guide  the  Saw.  —  If  the  saw  tends  to  run  off  the 
line,  the  blade  may  be  slightly  twisted  in  the  direction  it  ought 
to  take,  as  shown  by  Fig.  152.  It  will  immediately  respond  by 
a  change  in  its  course.  The  correction  should  be  made  as 
soon  as  the  error  is  discovered. 


BENCH    WORK. 


85 


153 


Fig.  1(34 


137,  To  correct  the  Angle  of  the  cut,  the  saw  should  be  bent, 
a>*  shown  by  Fig.  153,  and  at  the  same  time  moved  vertically, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  154,  instead  of  in  the  usual  direction,  which  is 
indicated  by  the  dotted  line  ab  in  the  same  figure. 

138.  Rip-sawing  on  the  line  ab  and  a^b\  Face  C,  Fig.  137. — 
Start  the  saw  on  the  lines  ab  and  cd  (the  latter  shown  in  End 

Elevation).  By  following 
the  first  line  the  proper 
direction  of  the  cut  will  be 
insured,  and  by  keeping 
on  the  second  the  piece 
will  be  cut  square  with  the 
working -face.  The  saw 
once  started,  the  truth  of 
the  angle  may  be  occasion- 
ally tested  by  the  try-square 
applied  as  shown  by  Fig. 
155.  Attention  given  to 
this  matter  at  first,  will 
soon  make  the  operator 
sufficiendy  skillful  to  judge 

Sthe     angle     accurately 
E]  enough  for  most  work. 

After  cutting  on  the  line 
abj  cut  also  on  the  line 
a}b\ 

In  sawing  a  piece  from 
one  end  to  the  other  in 
one  cut,  the  saw,  in  coming  out,  should  not 
be  allowed  to  injure  the  trestle.  This  danger 
may  be  met  by  slanting  the  board  so  that  it 
will  be  supported  by  one  corner,  thus  leav- 
ing an  open  space  between  the  trestle  and  the  point  where  the 
cut  will  end,  as  shown  by  Fig.  156. 


Fig.  ise 


Fig.  1S3 


ELEVATION, 


86 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


139.  Cross-cutting  on  the  lines  ef  2.x\A  gh,  Face  C,  Fig.  137. 
—  Observe  the  general  directions  that  have  already  been  given. 

When  the  piece  that  is  being  cut  is  almost  divided,  there 
is  danger  that  the  uncut  portion  may  break  and  splinter.  This 
tendency  must  be  guarded  against  by  properly  supporting  the 
work,  either  by  the  hand  or  by  a  suitable  arrangement  of  the 
trestles. 


EXERCISE   No.  4.  — Planing  (66-74). 

The  stock  required  is  the  pieces  resulting .  from  Exercise 

No.  3. 

140.  In  grasping  a  plane,  there  is  always  shown  a  disposition 
to  place  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  on  the  right  side  of  the 
plane.  This  should  not  be  done  ;  for,  as  will  be  seen  by  Fig.  157, 
when  the  plane  is  drawn  back,  the  arm,  by  contact  with  the 
body,  becomes  stiffened,  and  the  motion  of  the  plane  restricted. 
The  hand,  therefore,  should  be  so  turned  as  to  bring  the  thumb 
on  the  left  side,  as  shown  by  Fig.  158.  Held  in  this  manner, 
the  plane  may  be  easily  carried  well  forward  and  well  back. 


Fis-lSr 


ITig.  1S8 


When  the  surface  of  the  work  is  large,  begin  to  plane  at  its 
right-hand  end.  With  a  series  of  easy  strokes  pass  across  the 
face  of  the  work,  then  step  forward  and  take  a  second  series  of 


BENCH    WORK.  8/ 

Strokes,  and  so  on  until  the  whole  surface  has  been  passed  over. 
In  the  first  series  of  strokes  it  is  necessary  to  draw  the  plane  off 
the   work,  as   shown   by  Fig.  159.     In   doing   this,  sufficient 
pressure  must  be  exerted  in  the  direc- 
tion  of  the  arrow  to   overcome   any 

tendency  to  tip,  as  indicated  by  the  L      ^^  )\ 

dotted  outline;    in  the  last  series  of  _      Jff<^^--lr^"^^'^^ 

strokes  the  wrist  may,  for  the  same 

reason,  be  rested  easily  on  the  back  of  the  plane.  To  make 
the  strokes  between  the  ends  properly,  the  plane  should  be 
lifted  so  that  the  shaving  may  be  finished  before  the  forward 
movement  of  the  plane  ceases.  The  plane  need  not  be  lifted 
bodily  from  the  work.  The  natural,  slightly-upward  move- 
ment of  the  arm  when  stretched  out,  as  shown  by  Fig.  160, 
will  accomplish  all  that  is  necessary. 

Fig.  leo 


If  the  plane  is  allowed  full  contact  with  the  work  on  the 
backward  stroke,  a  dulling  effect  on  the  cutting  edge  is  pro- 
duced, especially  if  the  work  is  rough  and  gritty.  Under 
such  circumstances,  it  is  better  to  raise  the  plane  from  the 
work  entirely,  or  turn  it  on  its  edge,  or  draw  it  back  in  the 
position  shown  by  Fig.  160.  On  small,  clean  surfaces,  how- 
ever, it   is  best   to   disregard  this  caution,  since   sharpening 


88 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


Kig.  161 


^fe 


takes  less  time  than  placing  the  plane  before  beginning  each 

stroke. 

In  planing  a  narrow  surface,  for  example,  the  edge  of  a 
board,  difficulty  in  keeping  the  plane 
on  the  work  may  be  overcome  by 
grasping  it  in  such  a  way  that  the 
fingers  of  the  left  hand,  while  press- 
ing against  the  face  of  the  plane,  may 
maintain  a  light  contact  with  the 
work,  as  shown  by  Fig.   i6i. 

141.  The  mouth  of  a  plane  sometimes  becomes  clogged, 
and,  as  a  result,  the  cutting  ceases.  This  may  be  caused 
by  a  dull  cutting  edge,  which  scrapes  off  fibers  which  it  can- 
not cut ;  or  by  the  low  set  of  the  cap  on  the  iron ;  or  by  a 
bad  fit  between  cap  and  iron,  which  allows  a  shaving  to  find  its 
way  between  them,  thus  forming  an  obstruction  to  the  passage 
of  other  cuttings.  In  new  planes,  the  stoppage  may  be  due  to 
narrowness  of  the  mouth,  which  will  not  allow  a  thick  shaving 
to  pass.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  narrowness 
of  mouth  is  an  element  in  the  production  of  smooth  work,  and 
for  this  reason  the  opening  should  be  no  wider  than  is  abso- 
lutely necessary. 

To  preserve  the  face  of  the  plane,  apply  occasionally  a  few 
drops  of  lubricating  oil. 

142.  Jointing  the  sawed  edge  of  the  -if"  X3"  X  16"  piece 
from  Exercise  No.  3,  to  finish  at  if"  x  2 J"  x  16".     Set  the 

Fig.  163 

Scale,  li=l' 
ef - 


T 


16"- 


VJS 


21" 


gauge  at  2 J"  and  from  the  working- face  B,  Fig.  162,  gauge 


BENCH    WORK.  89 

lines  all  around  the  piece,  as  ef  and  bg.  Fasten  the  piece  in 
the  vise  with  the  sawed  edge  up  ;  plane  nearly  to  line  with  the 
jack-plane  and  finish  with  the  fore-plane. 

143.  Planing  to  a  Square  each  of  the  four  if"  X  2"  X  16" 
pieces  from  Exercise  No.  3,  their  finished  size  to  be  i|"  X  i|" 
X  16".  Select  a  straight  face,  or,  if  none  is  exactly  right,  cor- 
rect the  best  and  mark  it  as  a  working-face.  Let  this  be  done 
on  each  of  the  four  pieces.  All  old  marks  are  to  irig.103 
be  planed  off  and  new  ones  made  as  needed.     Sup-  d 

pose  Fig.  163  to  represent  an  end  of  one  of  the     ^JX 
pieces,  and  let  A  be  its  working-face.     With  the 
fore-plane,  joint  B  from  A,  and  mark  ^  as  a  second 


W 


T 


working-face.  Repeat  this  operation  on  each  of  the  other 
pieces.  Set  the  gauge  at  i|"  (the  width  to  which  each  side 
is  to  finish),  and  from  the  working-face  A  gauge  a  line  on  B. 
From  working-face  B  joint  C  to  line,  and  perform  this  opera- 
tion on  each  remaining  piece.  From  ^  as  a  working-face 
with  the  gauge  set  as  before,  produce  lines  on  A  and  C,  and 
plane  D  to  these  lines.  This  done,  the  four  pieces  should  be 
of  the  same  size,  and  true  squares  in  section. 

144.  Whenever  a  series  of  similar  operations  is  to  be  per- 
formed on  two  or  more  pieces,  the  method  developed  by  the 
foregoing  exercise  should  always  be  followed.  By  carrying  all 
the  pieces  along  together,  the  work  will  be  most  easily  and 
most  rapidly  accomplished. 

145.  Smooth  Surfaces  cannot  always  be  produced  by  a 
plane.  The  presence  of  knots  or  a  crooked  grain  causes  the 
work  to  split  in  advance  of  the  cutting  edge,  and  a  rough  sur- 
face results.  A  sharp  plane  set  to  take  a  fine  shaving,  will 
do  much  to  remedy  this  evil,  but  it  cannot  be  entirely  over- 
come. Surfaces,  such  as  a  table  top  or  a  door  panel,  which 
are  not  required  to  be  true,  may  be  made  as  smooth  as  possible 


90  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOODo 

with  a  plane,  and  the  rough  spots  reduced  afterwards  by  means 
of  a  hand-scraper,  appHed  as  shown  by  Fig.  164.  A  surface 
iTio.  3  64  ^^^^  ^^   required   to    be   true   as  well  as 

smooth,  is  best  smoothed  by  a  scraper 
mounted  like  a  plane-iron.  Such  a 
scraper  may  be  made  to  act  uniformly 
over  an  entire  surface,  whereas  the  hand- 
scraper  is  useful  on  rough  spots  only. 
The  requirement  of  both  truth  and 
smoothness,  however,  is  very  unusual. 
True  surfaces  are  necessary  about  a 
joint,  but  the  parts  of  a  joint  are  smooth  enough  as  left 
by  a  plane.  On  the  other  hand,  a  surface  that  is  required 
to  be  perfectly  smooth,  is  one  which  is  made  to  be  seen, 
and  will  be  sufficiently  true  if  the  eye  does  not  detect  its 
inaccuracy. 

146.-  Sand-Papering  (103). — The  use  of  sand-paper  should 
be  confined  to  the  removal  of  the  minute  fiber  which  is  raised 
and  left  by  the  plane.  This  fiber  is  usually  invisible,  but  its 
presence  may  be  detected  by  comparing  a  surface  newly-planed 
with  a  similar  surface  upon  which  sand-paper  has  been  judi- 
ciously used ;  the  latter  will  be  much  smoother.  In  applying 
sand-paper,  the  motion  should  be  "with  the  grain."  To  pre- 
vent the  destruction  of  sharp  corners  or  delicate  features  of  any 
sort,  the  sand-paper  should  be  held  about,  or  fastened  to,  a 
block  of  wood  corresponding  somewhat  to  the  form  of  the 
work  —  a  flat  block  for  a  flat  surface,  a  curved  block  for  a 
curved  surface.  A  piece  of  thick  leather  is  sometimes  used 
instead  of  the  wooden  block,  and  is  often  more  convenient,  as 
it  may  be  bent  to  fit  almost  any  surface. 

Sand-paper  will  not  satisfactorily  reduce  irregularities  in  a 
surface,  and  should  never  be  substituted  for  the  scraper.  As 
has  been  implied,  it  will  simply  remove  the  fiber,  and  a  few 


BENCH    WORK. 


91 


Strokes  arc  generally  found  to  be  sufficient ;  more  are  likely  to 
result  in  injury. 

EXERCISE   No.   5.  — Box. 

The  stock  required  is  J"  X  6"  x  24^" ;  it  must  be  lined  as 
shown  by  Fig.  165,  and  cut  into  five  pieces.  The  finished  box 
is  shown  by  Fig.  166. 

Fig.  1G5 

Scale,  lj'-.l' 


k 
1 

^            A  I  It         ^ 

1 

i 
1 

3" 

1 
1 
3 

Fig.  lee 

Scale,  li'-l' 


PLAN. 


147.  If  on  each  of  the  five  pieces  there  is  a  surface  suffi- 
ciently true  for  a  working-face,  it  should  be  marked  as  such ; 
otherwise,  a  working- face  should 
be  made.  From  the  working- 
face  joint  one  edge  on  each 
piece  and  mark  it  as  the  work- 
ing-edge. Set  the  gauge  at  2f " 
(the  inside  depth  of  the  box) 
and  gauge  the  side  and  end 
pieces  to  this  depth,  after  which 
joint  them  to  line.  From  the 
working  edge,  with  the  try- 
square,  scribe  on  the  working- 
face  of  all  the  pieces,  including 
the  bottom,  a  line  about  ^"  from 
one  end.  With  the  back-saw 
(56)  cut  these  ends,  being  care- 
tiil  to  keep  on  the  outside  of  the  line  (148).  The  work 
may   be   held   on   the   bench-hook,   as   shown   by  Fig.    167. 


^ ^--9i^ > 

\ 
31 

i-<^.^^.-^-^-^p 

JK 

ELEVATION 


92  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

In  starting  the  cut,  the  saw  may  be  made  to  act  across  the 
angle  of  the  work  m  the  direction  of  the  hne  ab,  but  should 
gradually  be  brought  to  the  position  shown,  its  motion  being 
parallel  to  the  face  of  the  work,  and  its  stroke  long  enough  to 
bring  every  tooth  into  action.  The  position  of  the  saw  in  Fig. 
167,  together  with  the  dotted  outline,  shows  a  proper  range  of 
movement. 


The  ends,  when  sawed,  should  be  square  with  the  work- 
ing-face and  working-edge.  If  the  cut  is  a  poor  one,  a 
second  may  be  taken  by  removing  just  enough  material  to 
hold  the  saw ;  if  it  is  only  a  little  "  out,"  it  will  be  best,  in 
this  case,  to  pass  the  error  for  a  time.  One  end  of  each  hav- 
ing been  squared,  the  pieces  may  now  be  brought  to  length. 
On  one  of  the  two  pieces  which  are  to  form  the  ends  of  the 
box,  lay  off  and  scribe  a  Hne  4"  from  the  squared  end.  Meas- 
ure the  second  end  piece  by  the  first  to  insure  the  same  length 
for  both,  whether  the  measurement  is  just  4"  or  not.  Next,  on 
one  of  the  two  side  pieces,  9J"  from  the  squared  end,  scribe  a 
line  for  sawing  and,  using  the  first  piece  as  a  measure,  lay  off  a 
similar  line  on  the  second  side  piece  and  also  on  the  bottom 
piece.  All  the  pieces  having  been  thus  lined,  they  may  be  cut 
with  the  back-saw,  after  which  all  but  the  bottom  piece  will  be 
of  the  dimensions  required. 

148.  Sawing  "outside  of  the  line"  may  be  illustrated  as  fol- 
lows :  if  two  Hnes  are  made  on  a  piece  of  work  just  12"  apart, 
and  the  portion  between  cut  out  by  sawing  exactly  on  the  lines, 


BENCH    WORK. 


93 


it  is  obvious  that  the  piece  will  be  less  than  12"  long  by  half 
the  width  of  the  saw  kerf  at  each  end,  or,  adding  the  two  de- 
ficiencies, by  the  width  of  one  kerf,  y^"  or  more. 
The  appearance  of  an  end  when  cut  outside  of  a       "^^^"^^^ 
line  will  be  that  shown  by  Fig.  168.    The  smooth    M'^^^^^^^^ 
line  along  the  upper  surface,  represents  the  cut 
made  by  the  scriber  in  lining  the  material ;  the  rest  shows  the 
work  of  the  saw. 

149.  Nailing  (254-256).  — The  side  and  end  pieces  are  to 
be  nailed,  as  shown  by  Fig.  169,  three  6-penny  casing  nails 
being  used  at  each  angle.  When  brought  together,  the  pieces 
must  be  flush  —  pretty  nearly  right  will  not  do. 

Nails,  when  seen  in  a  certain  position,  appear  equal  in  width 
throughout  their  length.  A,  Fig.  1 70 ;  while  a  view  at  right 
angles  to  the  first,  shows  them  wedge-shaped,  B,  Fig.  1 70.     In 


Fig.  I6Q 


1 


WORKING  FACE 


Fig.irO 
A         B 


PLAN. 


i 


ELEVATION. 


starting  a  nail,  the  line  represented  by  a  must  be  placed  across 
the  grain  of  the  wood,  so  that  the  point  will  cut  the  fibers 
which  are  displaced.  If  the  line  b  is  placed  across  the  grain, 
a  few  only  of  the  fibers  will  be  severed,  and  the  others  will  be 
simply  pressed  apart  by  the  inclined  sides  of  the  nail,  an  action 
which  is  quite  likely  to  split  the  work. 


94 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


150.  Hammer  Marks  on  the  work  must  be  avoided.  One 
who  is  skilled  in  the  use  of  a  hammer,  can  drive  a  nail  slightly 
below  the  surface  of  the  work  without  leaving  a  scar ;  but  it  is 
better  to  stop  driving  before  the  hammer  head  touches  the 
work  than  to  risk  damage. 

151.  Setting  Nails. — When  the  nail  has  been  driven  as 
nearly  "home"  as  possible,  "set"  it 
until  the  head  is  at  least  jJg"  below  the 
surface  of  the  work.  In  applying  the 
set,  rest  the  little  finger  of  the  left  hand 
on  the  work,  as  shown  by  Fig.  171,  and 
press  the  set  firmly  against  it;  there 
will  then  be  no  trouble  in  keeping  the 
set  on  the  head  of  the  nail.  ' 


Fig.  17-1 


152.  Withdrawing  Nails.  —  It  sometimes  happens  that  a 
nail,  when  partially  driven,  is  found  to  be  tending  in  a  wrong 
direction,  in  which  case  it  must  be  withdrawn.  If  the  hammer, 
when  used  for  this  purpose,  is  allowed  to  get  into  the  position 
shown  by  Fig.  172,  it  will  mar  the  work,  the  nail  is  likely  to 
splinter  the  wood  around  the  hole  in  coming  out,  and  an 
unnecessary  amount  of  force  on  the  hammer  handle  is  required 
to  draw  it.  A  better  way  is  to  keep  the  hammer  from  contact 
with  the  work  by  a  block  of  wood,  as  a,  Fig.  173.    The  block- 


iPig-irs 


iTig.irs 


FTT 


y-a::/::\ 


Ti; 


1 


ing  should  be  increased  in  thickness  as  the  nail  is  withdrawn. 
If  the  work  has  been  well  done,  the  nail  will  not  be  bent 


BENCH    WORK. 


95 


Never  attempt  to  start  a  nail  in  a  hole  from  which  one  has 
been  withdrawn.  The  second  nail  will  either  follow  the  first 
or,  prevented  from  doing  this,  will  take  an  opposite  course  no 
nearer  right. 


153.  Fastening  the  Box  Bottom.  —  The  side  and  end  pieces 
of  a  box,  when  nailed  together,  may  not  be  exactly  rectangular, 
although  each  piece  has  the  required  length,  and  the  fastening 
cannot  be  depended  on  to  retain  them  with  certainty  in  any 
given  form.  But  when  the  bottom  piece  is  added,  all  parts  be- 
come fixed.  It  is,  therefore,  important  that  the  rest  of  the  box 
be  in  proper  form  when  the  bottom  is  nailed. 

The  bottom  piece  has  been  cut  the  same  length  as  the  side 
pieces,  and  it  has  a  working-edge  with  which  both  ends  are 
square ;  it  is  a  little  wider  than  is  necessary,  but  this  can  be 
made  right  in  finishing  the  box. 

Place  the  bottom  piece 
with  the  working-face  inside, 
and  the  working-edge  even 
with  the  outside  edge  of  one 
of  the  side  pieces,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  174,  and  drive  the 
nails  a.    Now  since  the  angles 

b  are  right  angles,  the  end  pieces  of  the  box,  in  order  to  be 
square  with  the  side,  to  which  the  bottom  is  already  nailed, 
must  agree  with  the  ends  of  the  bottom  piece.  If  they  do  not 
agree,  but  slip  past,  as  shown  by  Fig.  1 74,  slight  pressure  will 
spring  them  to  place,  after  which  nails  may  be  driven  at  the 
points  c. 

The  nails  in  the  bottom  of  a  box  must  be  so  placed  as  to 
avoid  those  which  hold  the  sides  to  the  ends.  No  nail  can  be 
driven  at  the  comers  d. 

Finishing  the  box.  —  With  the  smooth-plane  take  a  light  cut 
all  over  the  outside,  keeping  the  sides  and  ends  square  with  the 


96 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


bottom  and  with  each  other.  The  ends  of  the  box,  where  the 
end  grain  of  the  bottom  and  side  pieces  is  encountered,  present 
the  most  difficulty. 

154.  In  planing  end  grain,  the  cutting  edge  must  be  sharp 
and  set  to  take  a  fine  shaving.  If  only  a  little  material  is  to 
be  taken  off,  the  movement  of  the  plane  should  be  so  limited 
that  the  cutting  edge  will  not  extend  beyond  the  work,  two 
cuts  being  taken  in  opposite  directions,  as  indicated  by  A  and 
B,  Fig.  175.     The  motion  of  the  plane  in  both  directions, 


Jt^g.  irs 


TTig.  ire 


'^^\NA 


ceases  near  C.  If  much  is  to  be  removed,  and  it  seems  best 
to  carry  the  plane  the  entire  length  of  the  surface,  a  bevel  may 
be  made  which  will  allow  the  cutting  edge  of  the  plane  to  leave 
the  work  gradually,  and  at  a  little  distance  from  the  edge,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  176,  or  a  piece  of  waste  material  maybe  fixed 
with  it  in  the  vise  as  shown  by  Fig.  179. 

EXERCISE   No.  6.  — Bench-Hook  (12). 

The  stock  required  is  if"  X  2f"  X  16"  from  Exercise  No.  4. 
It  is  shown  with  the  necessary  lining  by  Fig.  177,  in  which 
figure  the  Plan,  face  A,  represents  the  working-face,  and  the 
Elevation,  face  B,  the  working-edge.  The  finished  piece  is 
shown  by  Fig.  178. 

155.  Lay  off  the  lines  ab  and  cd on  face  B,  Fig.  177.  Pro- 
ject ab  across  face  A,  as  shown  by  ae,  and  project  cd  across 


BENCH    WORK. 


9; 


face  C  (not  shown),  and  from  these,  project  on  face  D  Hnes 
similar  to  ab  and  cd,  which  are  already  located  on  B.  Lo- 
cate the  point  /  on  lines  ab  and  cd,  and  also  on  the  similar  lines 
of  the  opposite  face  D,  measuring  in  each  case  from  the  work- 


Fig,  xrr 

Scale  13/— 1' 


fl^ 


A 


PLAN   (FACE  A.) 


c 

a     m]i] 

^  i 

unznzn: 

J, 

—1-       n 

L,!-^-         - 

,,- 

J^ 

^^■^ 

ELEVATION  (FACE  B.) 


-If 


^ 


Trig.  IT'S 

Scale,  I}^  — 1' 


Z^-^^^:^M 

i5 

I 

PLAN. 

U 16 

->i 

I 


ing-face  ^,  as  indicated  by  the  dimensions  given.  By  use  of  a 
straight-edge,  draw  />"  and  tk,  and  similar  lines  on  the  opposite 
face. 

Cut  along  the  lines  t)'  and  tk  with  the  rip-saw.  There  are 
two  ways  of  starting  the  saw  when  the  material,  as  at  k,  is  not 
sufficient  to  hold  the  blade.  First,  a  saw  cut  may  be  made 
along  the  line  ct/,  and  the  triangle  tr^k  chiseled  out,  giving  a  flat 
surface,  c^,  on  which  to  begin  ;  secondly,  a  block  of  wood  of 
the  same  breadth  with  the  work  may  be  fastened  in  the  vise 


98 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


with  the  latter^  as  shown  by  Fig.  179,  thus,  in  effect,  extending 
the  surface  ok.  In  the  case  of  the  line 
ik,  the  second  plan  is  preferable.  The 
block  A  should  bear  well  upon  the  work 
BzX.k. 

The  lines  ij  and  ik  having  been  sawed, 
cut  di  and  ai  with  the  back- saw.  With 
the  chisel  produce  the  bevels  repre- 
sented by  mn  and  op.  Bore  the  hole 
R^  Fig.  178,  and  the  piece  is  fin- 
ished. 


156.  With  reference  to  R,  it  may  be  said  that  while  aii  auger- 
bit  (89)  will  cut  smoothly  when  entirely  within  the  material,  it 
is  sure  to  splinter  when  coming  out  on  the  face  opposite  the 
starting  point. 

To  prevent  this,  the  bit  may  be  used  from  one  side  until  its 
spur  appears  on  the  opposite  side,  and  then  withdrawn,  and 
started  in  the  opposite  direction  in  the  hole  left  by  the  spur ; 
or  the  work  may  be  held  firmly  to 
another  block,  as  shown  by  Fig.  180, 
and  the  bit  allowed  to  pass  into  the 
block  as  though  the  two  were  one 
piece. 

An  auger-bit  should  cut  freely,  and  advance  into  the  work 
without  much  pushing  on  the  brace ;  if  it  does  not,  it  is  in  poor 
condition  and  should  be  sharpened. 


EXERCISE   No.   7.  — Halved   Splice    (202-203). 

The  stock  required  is  if"  X  if"  X  16"  from  Exercise  No.  4  ; 
it  is  shown  with  the  necessary  lining,  by  Fig.  181.  The  com- 
pleted piece  is  shown  by  Fig.  182. 


BENCH    WORK. 


99 


157.   A   and   B,  Fig.  181,  were  marked   as  working- faces 
when  the  piece  was  planed,  and  may  be  used  as  such  in  this 
exercise.     Midway  be- 
tween the  two  ends  on         "^ 
face  A,  locate  the  line 
«,  and  from  a  locate  b, 
Cj  d,  and  e.     Produce 
each     of     these     lines 
across  all  four  faces  of 
the     piece.       Set    the 
gauge  at  |f"  (half  of 
if"  the  width   of  the 
piece),    and    from    the     [ 
working-face  A,  gauge     : 
a  line   from  b  on  face     < 
B  around  the  end,  and 
back  to  b  on  face  D ;     \ 
also  from  line  d  on  face     < 
B  around  the  opposite     • 
end  to  line  d  on  face 
D.      These    lines    are 
shown   on   face   B   by 
fg  and  ij.     The   joint 
is  made  by  cutting  out 
the   rectangular   pieces 
bhgf  and  iflk. 


i-^« 


158.     In    cutting    a 
splice,  both  pieces  are 
not  taken  from  the  same 
face,  for  the  reason  that  the  gauged  line  may 
not  be  exactly  in  the  middle,  and  in  that  case  m  ^ 
each  of  the  remaining  parts  would  be  more  •" 
than  half  or  less  than  half  the  thickness  of 


A 


13 

5*  as 

I    QD 


^O 


lOO 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


the   material,  and  their  united  thickness,  when  put  together, 
as  in  Fig.  182,  would  be  greater  or  less  than  the  material  else- 


Fig.  183 

Scale,  3=1' 


^^^^==S=>;^ 

j%^*_   <!_?'  *--ic® 

PLAN.    Face  A. 
•c                                    of                                       J 

! 

m 

~z/=~-2^^^^~~  -—-^^-"^^^^'^ 

^^^^^^^^S$> 

Ih. 


\B 


ELEVATION.    FaCC  B. 

where.  The  pieces  cut  out,  therefore,  are  from  opposite  faces. 
Then  if  the  gauge  line  is  not  in  the  center  of  the  piece,  that  is, 
if  bhgf'is  thicker  than  ijlk,  the  smaller  piece  will  be  taken  out  on 
one  side,  and  the  larger  piece  on  the  other ;  and  the  sum  of 
the  two  remaining  parts  when  put  together,  as  in  Fig.  182,  will 
be  equal  to  the  full  size  of  the  material. 

159.  To  cut  the  pieces,  first  run  the  rip-saw  down  the  lines 
gf  and  if',  next,  with  the  back-saw,  cut  the  lines  bf  and  Ij -, 
next  the  lines  c  and  e,  being  care- 
ful in  all  of  these  cuts  to  keep  the 
proper  side  of  the  line  (148).  Finally, 
cut  on  the  line  a,  and  try  the  pieces 
together  as  in  Fig.  182.  If  the  work 
has  been  well  done,  the  joint  will  be 
good.  If  it  is  not  good,  the  faults 
may  be  corrected.  The  cuts  gf  and 
ij\  if  not  quite  to  line,  may  be  brought 
to  it  by  using  the  chisel  as  shown  by  Fig.   147.     To  facili- 


WORKMAN  V"" 


Kig.  183 
\ 


END  ELEVATION. 


BENCH    WORK. 


lOI 


tate  the  operation,  make  chamfers  on  each  side  from  the 
line  to  the  sawed  surface,  as  shown  by  Fig.  183,  to  be  used 
instead  of  the  Hne.  Such  chamfers  present  a  twofold  acivan- 
tage ;  they  are  both  visible  from  the  same  point,  and  they  pre- 
vent splintering  on  the  side  on  which  the  chisel  comes  out. 
The  fitting  on  the  line  ab,  Fig.  182,  having  been  finished,  sup- 
pose that  the  heading-joint  ac  fits,  but 
that   bd  does    not ;    or   suppose    that  c 


BHg.  1B4 


^ 


-- '-'"'^^•' 


neither  fits  properly,  as  shown  by  Fig. 

184.     If  the  discrepancy  is  not  great, 

the  joint  may  be  corrected  by  use  of  the  chisel,  or  it  may  be 

sawed  to  a  fit. 

160.  "To  saw  a  Fit,"  the  two  pieces  should  be  clamped 
together,  or  held  by  hand  in  the  position  shown  by  Fig.  184, 
and  the  joint  at  c  sawed  into.  This  will  make  c  at  least  as 
wide  as  the  saw  kerf.  Without  changing  the  relative  position 
of  the  pieces,  turn  the  work  over  and  saw  d,  which  will  also 
become  at  least  as  wide  as  the  saw  kerf,  and,  consequently, 
equal  to  c  in  so  far  as  the  joints  have  been  affected  by  the  saw. 
If  in  each  case  the  joint  is  close  enough  to  hold  the  saw,  the 
pieces  after  sawing  will  come  together  perfectly.  If  one  saw- 
ing is  insufficient,  the  pieces  may  be  brought  together  and 
sawed  a  second,  and  even  a  third  time. 

This  method  of  fitting  may  be  widely  applied. 

When  the  joint  is  perfect,  the  pieces  are  to  be  nailed  at  each 


Fig.lSS 


end  with  4-penny  casing   nails  driven   obhquely,  or   "toed," 
as  illustrated  by  Fig.  185.     While  nailing,  rest  the  pieces  A 


I02 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


O. 


^> 


-f 


^ 


and   B  on  the   bench   C,   and,  to   retain  them   in   position, 

allow  one  to  bear  on 
the  block  Z>,  which 
in  turn  is  held  by  the 
bench-stop.  The  block 
protects  the  ends  of  the 
work,  which  would  be 
mutilated  by  the  bench- 
stop  if  they  were  placed 
in  direct  contact  with 
it. 

i6i.  Toeing  Nails. 
— The  advantage  to  be 
derived  from  toeing  a 
nail  lies  in  the  fact  that 
it  always  "  draws  "  in 
the  direction  in  which 
it  is  driven.  If  driven 
as  shown  by  a,  Fig.  185, 
it  will  draw  A  upon 
B  both  in  a  horizontal 
and  in  a  vertical  direc- 
tion, and  will  thus  in- 
sure good  contact  be- 
tween the  parts  of  the 
joint. 

The  nails  having  been 
driven  and  set,  each  of 
the  four  sides  may  be 
given  a  final  smooth- 
ing by  a  stroke  of  the 
plane. 


I  / 


/-, 


/ 
0 

-^ 

V 

A/ 

v 

c 

rQ 

•^ 

&. 

/ 

5~ 

\/ 

BENCH    WORK. 


103 


EXERCISE   No.   8.  — Splayed  Splice. 

The  stock  required  is  if'x  if'x  16",  from  Exercise  No.  4 ; 
the  necessary  Hnes  are  shown  by  Fig.  186.  The  finished  piece 
is  represented  by  Fig.  187. 


-n- 


END. 


ELEVATION. 

162.  Let  the  faces  A  and  B  be  the  working- faces.  Lay 
off  on  face  A  hne  a,  and  from  a,  the  Hnes  d,  c,  d,  e,f,  g,  h,  and 
/,  and  project  these  hnes  on  all  four  faces  of  the  work.  Set  the 
bevel  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees ;  with  its  beam  on  A,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  dotted  outline,  lay  off  on  B  lines  dj,  bk,  gf,  and 
ik,  and  repeat  these  lines  on  face  D.  Connect  points  on  both 
B  and  D,  forming  lines  which  on  B  appear  as  bj  and  ij.  The 
portions  marked  r  are  to  be  removed.  jrig.  iss 

163.  To  cut  the  joint,  first  use  the 
rip-saw  on  the  lines  bj  and  ij\  and 
afterwards  the  back-saw  on  the  short 
oblique  hnes  gf  and  bk.  The  back- 
saw  can  easily  be  started  if,  while  the 
piece  is  held  in  the  vise,  a  stroke  is 
given  in  the  direction  a,  Fig.  188, 
to  carry  the  saw  into  the  work  a  distance  equal  to  the  depth 


I04 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


of  its  teeth,  after  which  it  may  be  turned  into  the   desired  di' 
rection  b. 

The  splayed  ends  dj  and  ik  may  be  cut  with  the  work  on 
the  bench-hook,  Fig.  189.  By  following  the  directions  given  in 
the  previous  exercise  the  joint  may  be  finished,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  187. 

Kijr.  ISO 


EXERCISE  No.  9.  —  Mortise-and-Tenon  Joint  (211-215). 

The  stock  required  is  if"  X  if"  X  16",  from  Exercise  No.  4  ; 
it  is  shown  with  the  necessary  lines  by  Fig.  190.  The  finished 
piece  is  shown  by  Fig.  191. 

164.  Let  A  and  B  represent  the  two  working- faces.  From 
one  end  of  the  piece,  on  face  A^  lay  off  line  a,  and  from  «,  lay  off 
lines  b,  c,  and  d.  Measure  carefully  the  width  of  the  piece  on 
line  d,  face  A,  and  lay  off  one-half  of  the  same  on  each  side  of 
the  line  b,  and  through  the  points  thus  fixed  make  lines  e  and/. 
Project  the  lines  a,  c,  and  d  on  all  four  faces  of  the  piece,  and  the 
lines  e  and  f  on  B  and  Z>,  the  two  faces  adjoining  A.  Set  the 
gauge  at  i",  and  from  face  ^,  gauge  on  B  the  line  gh  and  a 
similar  line  on  the  opposite  face  D.  Gauge  the  line  ij  and 
carry  it  around  the  end  of  the  work  to  the  line  d  on  face  D. 
Set  another  gauge  at  i^"  (^"  +  f  "j  the  width  of  the  mortise  and 
of  the  tenon),  and  gauge  between  the  same  lines  as  before,  pro- 


BENCH    WORK. 


105 


^      CQ 


H 


■■-^^'1 


?, 


_±J 


'^ 


r  0 

^-  0 


ducing  //i',  ly,  etc.     The  mortise  and  the  tenon  are  formed 
by  cutting  out  the  por- 
tions marked  r. 

The  method  of  "lay- 
ing off"  the  width  of  the 
mortise  and  the  tenon 
is  to  be  especially  ob- 
served. The  distance 
between  the  two  lines 
which  define  the  width 
of  the  mortise,  and  those 
which  define  the  width 
of  the  tenon,  being 
equal  to  the  difference 
in  the  setting  of  the  two 
gauges,  must  be  the 
same.  The  result,  as 
far  as  the  mortise  and 
tenon  are  concerned, 
would  not  be  different 
if  the  piece  containing 
the  mortise  were  twice 
as  thick  as  that  carrying 
the  tenon.  It  is  best  to 
use  two  gauges  to  avoid 
the  mistakes  which  might 
arise  from  changing  a 
single  one.  Then,  if  it 
should  be  found  neces- 
sary to  use  them  after 
the  first  lining,  precisely 
the  same  measurements 
will  be  obtained.  This 
process   can   be    short- 


bo 


ik 


TcT 


io6 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


ened  by  using  a  mortise-gauge  (33),  which  makes  both  lines  at 
the  same  time. 

165.    Cutting  the  Mortise.  —  It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
lines  which  appear  on  face  B,  Fig.  190,  have  their  counterparts 


Tin 


h 


on  the  opposite  face  D.  To  cut  the  mortise,  select  a  chisel 
having  a  width  as  nearly  as  possible  equal  to  the  space  between 
the  gauge  lines,  and,  beginning  on  face  B,  near  the  middle  of 
the  mortise,  advance  toward  one  end,  as  shown  by  Fig.  149. 
The  end  of  the  mortise  having  been  reached,  commence  at  the 
starting  point  and  advance  to  the  other  end.  Always  loosen 
the  chisel  by  a  backward  movement  of  the  handle  ;  a  movement 
in  the  opposite  direction  would  injure  the  ends  of  the  mortise. 
(See  Fig.  149.)  After  the  first  few  cuts,  each  deeper  than  the 
preceding,  the  chisel  can  easily  be  made  to  penetrate  an  inch 
or  more,  in  pine  or  poplar.  If  the  depth  is  equal  to  half  the 
thickness  of  the  work,  no  attention  need  be  given  to  the  chips. 
One  side  of  the  mortise  having  been  cut  in  this  manner,  turn 
the  work  over  and  repeat  the  operation  on  face  D,  the  chiseJ 


BENCH   WORK. 


107 


Fig.  lOS 


being  driven  down  to  meet  the  opening  made  from  the  first  side. 
After  the  cutting  is  finished,  the  chips  may  be  dug  out  with  a 
chisel  or  driven  through  by  use  of  a  wooden  plug.  Never  try 
to  drive  them  through  by  using  the  chisel  with  its  cutting  edge 
parallel  to  the  grain,  as  such  use 
is  very  likely  to  split  the  work. 
The  chips  having  been  re- 
moved, the  truth  of  the  mortise 
may  be  tested  by  using  the  flat 
side  of  the  chisel  as  a  straight- 
edge, as  shown  by  Fig.  192. 
The  sides  of  the  finished  mortise 
should  agree  with  the  chisel,  as 

at  a.     Compare  a  with  h.     Remember  that  at  least  one-half  the 
thickness  of  the  line  should  remain  on  the  work. 


PLAN. 


166.    The  Tenon  may  next  be  cut  by  using  the  back-saw, 
both  across  the  grain  and  with  it.     The  sawing,  if  to  line,  leaves 
nothing  to  be  done  except  the  pointing  of  the  tenon ;   this  is 
accomplished  by  a  stroke  of 
the  chisel  on  each  side,  which  ^^^'  ^^^ 

makes  it  appear  as  shown  by 
Fig.  193.  The  pointing  is 
necessary,  because  a  square- 
ended,  tight-fitting  tenon,  if 
driven  to  place,  will  splinter 
the  sides  of  the  mortise.  The 
length  of  the  tenon  is  suffi- 
cient to  make  it  project  be- 
yond the  mortise  a  distance 
more  than  equal  to  the  part 

pointed.     After  the  fitting  has  been  done,  the  projecting  part  is 
cut  off. 

When  both  the  mortise  and  tenon  are  finished,  cut  the  piece 


ELEVATION. 


io8 


BENCH    WORK   IN    WOOD. 


on  the  line  r,  Fig.  190,  and  try  the  tenon  in  the  mortise.  It 
should  enter  at  a  light-driving  fit.  If  the  shoulders  of  the  tenon 
do  not  make  a  good  joint  with  the  cheeks  of  the  mortise,  that 
is,  if  the  joint  at  S,  Fig.  191,  is  not  good,  it  may  be  sawed  to  a 
fit,  as  in  the  case  of  the  splice.  When  all  is  satisfactory,  bore 
the  pin  hole,  insert  the  pin,  cut  off  the  projecting  portion  of  the 
tenon  and  of  the  pin,  and  take  a  light  shaving  from  those  sur- 
faces on  which  a  plane  may  be  used. 

167.  To  Make  a  Pin  (249).  —  Select  a  piece  of  straight- 
grained  material,  in  this  case  4"  or  5"  long,  and,  by  use  of  the 
chisel,  reduce  it  in  section  to  a  square  whose  side  is  slightly 
greater  than  the  diameter  of  the  hole  it  is  to  fit.  Then  take  off 
the  corners,  making  it  an  octagon  in  section,  and  point  one 

iris.l04 


Fig.  105 


end.     All  this  will  be  best  accomplished  if  the  piece  is  held 
by  the  bench-hook,  as  indicated  by  Fig.  194. 

168.   Drawboring  is  a  term  applied  to  a  method  of  locating 

pin  holes  so  as  to  make 
the  pin  draw  the  tenon 
into  the  mortise.  Fig. 
195  shows  the  relative 
position  of  the  holes  be- 
fore the  pin  is  inserted. 
It  is  evident  that  a 
tight-fitting  pin  will  have 
a  tendency  to  make  the  holes  in  the  mortise  and  tenon 
coincide,  and  thus  draw  the  two  pieces  together.    The  holes 


BENCH    WORK. 


109 


may  be  located  on  the  mortise  and  tenon  by  direct  measure- 
ment ;  or  the  cheeks  of  the  mortise  may  be  bored  through  and 


"♦r; 

f- 

1 

C 

01 

5 
e 

r- 

c> 

r 

1 

». 

^; 

f 

s^; 

1 
1 

1 
1 
1 

s? 

1 
{ 

J 

^.  ^. 

} 

•i 

T'-*' 

**'. 

V 

■^ 

t 

1- 


i- 


t^ 


8"  3 


?;i 


the  tenon  inserted,  and  marked 

by  putting  the  bit  into  the  hole 

already   bored   and   forcing    its  5 

point  against   the   tenon.    The      '    ^ 

tenon  may  then  be  withdrawn 

and  bored,  the  point  of  the  bit  being  placed  a  little  nearer  the 

shoulder  of  the  tenon  than  the  mark. 


T^ 


.b 


no 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


The  practice  of  drawboring  is  not  to  be  commended,  and, 
if  indulged  in  at  all,  great  care  and  discretion  must  be  exer- 
cised. In  many  cases,  it  puts  a  strain  on  the  joint  which  is 
nearly  equal  to  its  maximum  resistance,  and  but  little  strength 
is  left  to  do  the  work  for  which  the  joint  is  made.  Frequently, 
the  mortise  or  tenon  is  split  and  rendered  practically  useless. 

EXERCISE   No.  lo. 


Keyed  Mortise-and-Tenon  Joint  (240-245). 

The  stock  required  is  if "  X  if "  X  16",  from  Exercise  No.  4  ; 

it  is  shown  with  the  ne- 
cessary lining  by  Fig. 
196.  The  finished  piece 
is  represented  by  Fig. 
197. 

169.  The  lining  dif- 
fers from  that  of  the 
preceding  exercise  in 
the  following  respects : 
the  position  of  the  line 
b  is  changed  as  indi- 
cated by  the  dimension 
figures,  and  the  position 
of  hues  e  and  f,  which 
extend  around  the  piece, 
is  changed  to  corre- 
spond; the  mortise  is 
made  longer  on  face  B 
than  on  face  D,  giv- 
ing   one    oblique    end, 


ELEVATION. 


as  indicated  by  the  dotted  line  /,  face  A, 


BENCH    WORK.  Ill 

As  regards  the  tenon,  the  Hne  g  is  added  at  a  distance  from 
d  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  piece  on  the  hne  b,  face  A ; 
the  point  h  is  located  on  face  A,  and  on  the  opposite  face  6', 
and  the  line  gh  drawn  on  both  faces.  The  mortise  /  is  to  be 
cut  as  in  the  preceding  exercise,  and  one  end  made  oblique  as 
indicated  by  the  figure. 

To  form  the  tenon  the  portions  marked  r  are  to  be  removed. 
First,  beginning  at  g,  cut  along  the  obHque  line  gh ;  then,  be- 
ginning at  k,  the  two  Hnes  kj ;  and,  finally,  define  the  shoulders 
of  the  tenon  by  cutting  on  the  line  d.  This  order  will  save  all 
the  lines  as  long  as  they  are  needed. 

170.  A  study  of  the  finished  piece  will  show  that  the  tenon 
is  inserted  from  the  face  Z>,  and  pushed  over  so  that  the  splayed 
edge  of  the  tenon,  g/i,  bears  on  the  splayed  end  of  the  mortise, 
/,  leaving  an  open  space  at  the  other  end  of  the  mortise  to  be 
filled  by  the  key.     See  Fig.  197. 

The  key  should  be  planed  from  a  piece  5"  or  6"  long.  It 
should  be  uniform  in  width  and  nearly  so  in  thickness,  there 
being  but  a  slight  taper  near  the  end  which  is  to  be  driven  in 
advance ;  this  end  should  be  pointed  like  a  tenon.  It  is  best 
to  drive  the  key  from  the  inside  in  the  direction  indicated  by 
the  arrow.  Fig.  197. 

The  piece  is  to  be  finished  in  accordance  with  the  appear- 
ance and  dimensions  shown  by  Fig.  197. 

EXERCISE   No.  11.  — Plain  Dovetail. 

The  stock  required  is  two  pieces,  each  f"  X  3}"  X  4", 
edges  jointed  parallel,  and  one  end  squared.  (The  material 
may  be  worked  iip  as  one  piece  |-"  x  3f "  X  8",  which,  after 
being  planed  to  width,  may  be  cut  in  two  with  the  back-saw, 
thus  giving  the  squared  ends  required.)  The  working-faces 
used  in  preparing  the  material  may  also  be  used  in  laying  oflf 
the  lines.    To  avoid  confusion  one  piece  will  be  called  X  and 


12 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


the  other  K     Fig.  198  shows  the  Uning  necessary  for  J^and   P 
respectively.     The  finished  joint  is  shown  by  Fig.  199. 


171. 


Fig 

Scale, 


198 

3  =  1' 
h 


Lay  off  on  all  four  faces  of  each  piece,  J"  from  the 
squared  end,  the  hne  ab,  Fig.  198. 
Fasten  X  in  the  vise,  and  on  its 
squared  end  lay  off  lines  as  gh, 
Fig.  198.  Remove  the  piece  from 
the  vise,  and  with  the  bevel  set 
^(^  "i  to  4"  (29),  project  on  the 
faces  A  and  C  oblique  lines  as 
ef.  The  portions  which  are  to  be 
removed  to  form  the  mortises,  are 
marked  r.  Put  the  piece  in  the 
vise  again,  and  with  the  back-saw 


e 

\  *") 

tZ  a 

■|._" 

r 

X 

^ 

.f4 

X 

r 

r 

-ji. 

r 

ELEVATION    (FACE  A.) 


D 

END 


^  -T 


^F 


END. 


ELEVATION    (FACE  C.) 


cut  down  the  oblique  lines  as  e/. 
With  a  chisel,  used  as  in  cutting 
an  ordinary  mortise,  remove  the 
material  between  the  lines.  If 
preferred,  part  of  it  can  be  re- 
moved by  boring  a  hole  as  indi- 
cated by  the  dotted  outline.  The 
hole  will  make  the  chiseling  easier, 
but  in  so  small  a  piece  of  work  it  is  doubtful  whether  there  is 
anything  gained.  The  piece  X  having  been  finished,  fasten  V 
in  the  vise,  working-end  up  and  working-face  outward.  Place 
the  working- face  of  X  on  the  working-end  of  Y,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  200,  taking  care  that  the  line  ab  on  X  is  in  the  same  line 
with  the  working- face  of  V.  Holding  the  work  in  this  position, 
and  guided  by  the  mortises  in  X,  scribe  on  the  end  of  V  the 
oblique,  lines  as  gh,  Fig.  198.  Remove  Y  from  the  vise,  and 
with  the  beam  of  the  square  on  the  working-end,  project  to  ab 
lines  as  ef  from  the  extremities  of  the  oblique  lines  just  made. 
The  portions  marked  r  and  r'  are  to  be  removed  to  form  the 


BENCH   WORK. 


"3 


ELEVATION     (B.) 


"pins."  Those  on  the  outside  marked  r'  may  be  removed 
entirely  with  the  saw;  those  on  the  inside  (r),  partly  with  the 
chisel,  as  in  the  case  of  the  mortises  in  the  piece  X. 

172.   The  joint  ought  to  go  together  by  Hght  driving,  and 

be  perfectly  square  on 
the     inside     between 
the  working-faces.     If 
it  is  found  to  be  satis- 
factory, take  it  apart, 
apply  a  light   coating 
of  glue,  -and  drive  to- 
gether again.      When 
the  glue  is  hard,  the 
joint  may  be  smoothed  and  .squared,  and 
the  ends  of  the  pieces  cut  to  the  dimen- 
sions shown  in  Fig.  199. 

173.    It  will  be  seen  that  one  part  of 
the  joint  is  made,  and  the  second  part  is 
then  made   to   fit   the   first;    hence,  the 
^ELEVATION  (A.)  proportions  of  the  first  part  need  not  be 

determined  with  great  exactness.  The  skilled 
bench-worker  usually  proceeds  as  follows :  on 
the  piece  X  (if  there  are  several  pieces,  X,  he 
treats  them  all  at  the  same  time)  he  lays  ofif 
the  lines  ab  and  cross-lines  as  gh,  the  latter 
without  measuring,  and  then  saws  obliquely 
without  the  use  of  lines  as  ef\  on  Y  he  lays  off 
the  lines  ah  and  oblique  lin^  as  gh,  and  saws  without  making 
lines  as  ef.  In  this  way  the  joint  is  soon  made,  and,  al- 
though not  perfectly  symmetrical,  it  may  be  well- formed  and 
well-fitted. 


Fig.  soo 
a. 


WORKING  FACE 


114 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


EXERCISE  No.  12.  —  Lap,  or  Drawer,  Dovetail. 


The  stock  required   is   one   piece 


X3f" 


4."  and  one 
X  3f "  X  4", 


^ 

^ 

piece  ^ 

edges  jointed  parallel 
and  one  end  of  each 
squared.  The  finished 
piece  is  shown  by  Fig. 
201.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  piece  X  does 
not  extend  across  the 
full  thickness   of  the 

piece    y,  and,  consequently,  the  end  grain 

does   not    ap- 


ELEVATlOlS    (FACE  BJ 


pear  in  Eleva- 
tion B,  Fig. 
201. 


Fig.  SOQ 
Scale,.    8  —  1' 


PLAN    (FACE  D.)** 


ELEVATION    (FACE  A.1  174*      ^^    ^' 


Fig.  202,  scribe  the  line  ab,  ^" 
(the  thickness  of  X)  from  the 
working- end,  and  continue  it 
across  the  working-edges.  Set  a 
gauge  at  |",  and  from  the  work- 
ing-face A  gauge  the  line  cd  on 
the  working- end,  and  extend  it  on 
the  edges  until  it  meets  the  ex- 
tended line  ab,  as  shown  by  face 
Z>,  Fig.  202.  From  the  working- 
end  of  X,  with  the  same  gauge, 
make  the  line  ab  on  the  two  faces 
A  and  C,  Produce  the  remaining 
lines  on  X,  cut  the  mortises,  and 
lay  off  Y  by  X,  as  in  the  last 
exercise. 


^— -3i-- 



r 
r 

IT 

t-C 


ELEVATION    (FACE  A.) 


c 

I 

B. 

1 

r 

/i 

1 

~r 

X       J 

f  e 

-----. 

4 

. 3i"-l- 

1 

r 

i 

i^ 


-0 


ELEVATION    (FACE  A.) 


B 

END. 


BENCH    WORK. 


"5 


In  cutting  out  around  the  pins  (V),  the  delicacy  of  the  work 
does  not  demand  the  most  delicate  chisel,  but  one  as  large  as 
is  convenient  should  be  used.  Finish  the  joint  to  the  dimen- 
sions given  by  Fig.  201. 


EXERCISE  No.  13.  — Blind  Dovetail. 


ITig.  S03 
Scale,      3'*- 1' 


The  stock  required 
is  two  pieces,  each 
i"  X  3f "  X  4"  edges 
jointed  parallel  and 
one  end  squared.  The 
finished  joint  is  shown 
by  Fig.  203.  The 
ELEVATION  (FACE  B.^      dovctail  Is wholly  with- 

in  the  square  adcd,  and,  consequently,  no 

end  grain  shows  on  any  face. 

175.  With  the  square,  lay  off  on  the 
working- faces  and  two  edges  of  each  piece 
of  material.  Fig.  204,  the  lines  ^a,  ai,  and 
cd,  dk,  and  from  the  working-face  A  gauge 


ELEVATION  (FACE  A.) 

on  the  ends  of  each  piece  the  line  ef. 


j'-y 


F-ig.  SOS 
Scale,      8  - 1' 

C      b    0 


ff 


PLAN  (FACE  DJ 
d     a 


-8^ 'J' 


D   ^ 


A- 


k     i  ipn 

ELEVATION    (FACE  A.)  END. 


d    a 


^ 


k     i 

ELEVATION. 


ii6 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


ITig;.  5306 
Scale,.     3  —  j' 


aAh 


X 


^-_L 


.0 


Cut  both  pieces  as  shown  by  Fig.  205.  Taking  one  of  the 
pieces,  which  will  be  called  X,  space  ^  and  lay  off  on  the  reduced 
end  surface  lines  as  ^/,  Fig.  206,  using  the  try-square  blade 
as  indicated  by  the  dotted  outline.     Next,  produce  oblique 

lines  as  gk,  shown  in  the  same 
figure,  and  cut  the  mortises 
marked  r. 

With  V  in  the  vise  apply  X, 
in  which  the  mortises  have  al- 
ready been  cut,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  207,  so  that  points  may  be 
located  along  the  exterior  angle 
e'  of  V,  corresponding  to  the 
openings  in  X.  Project  these 
points  (shown  on  line  e'/,  Fig. 
208)  from  the  exterior  angle  <?', 
to  the  interior  angle  ^',  Fig. 
207.  Next  apply  X  to  V,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  209  ;  from  this 
position  the  points  shown  on 
the  line  a't',  Fig.  208,  can  be 
secured  along  the  angle  a'. 
These  points,  when  connected, 
will  give  lines  as  gk,  Y,  Fig.  206. 
From  these  lines,  project  on  the 
working-face  lines  as  tj,  down 
to  the  line  d'k\  Cut  out  the 
portions  marked  r,  and  the  dovetail  is  finished.  It  now  re- 
mains to  make  a  miter-joint  between  the  two  rectangular  pro- 
jections on  X  and  K     Set  the  bevel  at  a  miter  (an  angle  of  45 


ELEVATION    (FACE  A.) 


END. 


.'D 


r 

r 
T 

r 


e'lj' 


r  i' 

ELEVATION    (FACE  A.) 


ENDi 


1  No  dimensions  are  given  for  locating  the  lines  similar  to  op,  X,  Fig. 
206.  They  can  be  found  by  measuring  the  drawing,  which,  as  indicated  by 
the  scale,  is  one-fourth  the  size  of  the  piece  it  represents. 


BENCH    WORK. 


117 


degrees)  and  scribe  the  dotted  line  e,  Fig.  205,  on  each  piece; 
then  cut  to  hne  with  a  chisel.  When  the  joint  has  been  fitted, 
glue,  and  finish  to  dimensions. 


irie.sos 

a'    e'h' 


e' 


X 


Y 


V    S'm' 


176.    If,  instead  of  cutting  out  the  first  and  last  space  of  Y^ 
one-half  only  is  cut  out,  as  shown  by  Fig.  210, 
the  dividing  line  being  on  a  miter,  and,  if  the  Fig,  aio 

outside  portions  of  X,  tn,  m,  Fig.  206,  are  cut     /  I'yA 

away  to  a  miter  to  correspond,  the  joint  will 
appear   as    a    plain   miter-joint,   instead    of    that    shown    by 
Fig.  203. 


EXERCISE   No.  14. —  Frame  and  Panel  (246-248). 

177.  Fig.  211  shows  a  small  panel  door.  The  frame  is  made 
up  of  stiles  and  rails,  which  are  fastened  together  by  mortise-and- 
tenon  joints ;  the  spaces  within  the  frame  are  filled  by  panels. 
The  lower  panel  is  simply  a  thin  board  screwed  to  the  back  of 
the  frame.  The  upper  panel  is  composed  of  narrow  strips,  which 
are  inserted  in  a  groove  made  in  the  frame  for  their  reception. 
The  front  of  the  frame,  around  the  lower  panel,  is  chamfered, 
and  around  the  upper  panel  is  beaded.  It  is  the  purpose  of 
this  exercise  to  construct  that  portion  of  the  door  included 
within  the  rectangle  abdc. 


ii8 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


Three  pieces  of  stock  are  required,  each  jointed  to  dimen- 


Fig 

Scale, 

.  SIS 

3"'l' 

y///////J/j 

^//m/f 

6=^^-^^ 

^5^ 

i2. 

ELEVATIO^f•. 


sions  as  follows  :  for  the  stile, 
i-J"  X  2|-"  X  9" ;  for  the  rail, 
li"  X  4"  X  61^" ;  and  for  the 
panel  i"  X  5"  X  si".  The 
finished  work  is  shown  by 
Fig.  212. 


ELEVATION. 


178.  The  mortise-and-tenon  joint  between  the  stile  and  rail, 
both  in  the  size  and  position  of  its  parts,  is  shown  by  Fig.  213. 
The  width  of  the  mortise  and  the  tenon  should  be  equal  to  the 
width  of  the  f "  chisel.^  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  lines  are 
so  placed  as  to  make  the  stile  extend  beyond  the  lower  edge  of 
the  rail.     This  extension,  or  "  horn,"  as  it  is  called,  is  for  the 


1  The  nominal  width  of  a  chisel  does  not  always  agree  with  its  actual 
width. 


BENCH    WORK. 


119 


purpose  of  re-enforcing  the  end  of  the  mortise  during  the  fit- 
ting, —  a  recourse  which  must  always  be  had  when  the  mortise 
in  the  finished  work  closely  approaches  the  end  of  the  material. 
After  all  the  jointing  has  been  done,  the  horns  may  be  cut  off. 
Having  laid  off  the  necessary  lines  for  cutting  the  mortise  and 
the  tenon,  very  light  lines,  as  cd  and  c^cP,  Fig.  213,  should  be 
made  on  both  stile  and  rail  to  guide  in  cutting  the  chamfers. 


c 


d 


SIDE  OF  RAIL. 


"Fig.  ST3 
Scale,     s'^l' 


■2i"—-*i"^ 


<i^ 


4-2i- — V 


d\ 

d'\ 


l^SJ- 


-^ — ^>k 

i' 

_i 


SIDE  OF  STILE. 


EDGE  A  OF  STILE 


Cut  and  fit  the  mortise  and  tenon,  and  then  make  both 
chamfers,  as  shown  in  the  finished  piece.  Fig.  212. 

179.  Short  chamfers  (222,  223)  like  these  are  best  cut  by 
use  of  the  chisel,  a  spokeshave  sometimes  being  used  in  finishing. 

Long  chamfers  may  be  cut  rapidly  by  the  drawing-knife, 
which  may  be  followed  by  the  smooth-plane. 

180.  Before  putting  the  joint  together,  enlarge  the  outside 
end  of  each  mortise,  as  shown  by  a  and  ^,  Fig.  213,  to  make 
room   for  the  wedges  c,  c,  which,  after  the  joint   has   been 


I20  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

driven  together,  are  to  be  dipped  in  glue  and  driven  as 
indicated.  This  method  of  wedging  forms  a  very  strong 
joint  (250,  251). 

181.  Round  the  edge  of  the  panel  on  the  bottom  and  side, 
as  shown  by  a,  Fig.  212,  and  fasten  it  to  the  back  of  the 
frame  by  two  i"  No.  8  screws  —  one  in  the  rail,  and  one,  d^ 
in  the  stile  (258). 

182.  In  inserting  screws,  the  outside  piece  (in  this  case  the 
panel)  must  be  bored  for  each  screw.  The  hole  should  be 
sufficiently  large  to  allow  the  screw  to  pass  through  easily ;  and, 
if  the  wood  is  hard,  it  must  be  enlarged  at  the  top,  or  "  coun- 
terbored,"  to  receive  the  head  of  the  screw.  The  piece  in 
which  the  screw  holds  (in  this  case  the  frame),  if  of  soft  wood, 
need  not  be  bored  unless  there  is  danger  that  it  may  split,  in 
which  case  a  hole  should  be  made,  in  diameter  about  two-thirds 
that  of  the  screw.  The  necessity  for  a  hole  in  hard  wood 
depends  largely  on  the  proportions  of  the  screw.  A  short, 
large-wired  screw  will  stand  almost  any  service,  while  a  long 
slender  one  will  frequently  be  twisted  or  broken  under  the 
strain  necessary  to  drive  it  into  wood  which  is  only  moder- 
ately hard. 

Judgment  must  determine  when  the  screw  is  driven  suf- 
ficiently. The  head  must  bed  well  into  the  wood ;  but 
there  is  danger  that  it  may  be  forced  so  far  as  to  "  strip " 
the  thread,  and  that,  as  a  consequence,  the  screw  will  not 
hold  (96,98). 

Never  allow  the  screw-driver  to  slip  from  the  slot  of  the 
screw  while  the  latter  is  being  driven. 

183.  Brad-awls  are  useful  in  preparing  the  way  for  small 
screws.  The  cutting  edge  should  always  be  placed  across  the 
grain  so  that  the  fibers  will  be  cut,  and  not  simply  pressed  apart 
to  close  up  again  when  the  tool  is  withdrawn.     The  difference 


BENCH    WORK. 


121 


in  effect  may  be  seen  by  comparing,  Fig.  214,  A,  which  shows 
a  proper  action,  with  B. 

Kis.  314 


;SE9^==i$:<^^^%^^:^ 


EXERCISE   No.  15.  — Paneling. 

This  exercise  consists  in  making  that  portion  of  the  panel 
door.  Fig.  211,  included  within  the  rectangle  e/gk. 


Scale,     a'  1' 


122 


BENCH    WORK    TN    WOOD. 


Three  pieces  of  stock  are  required,  each  jointed  to  dimen- 
sions as  follows:  stile  i-J"  X  2^"  x  9";  rail  i^"  X  2^-"  x  61"; 
panel  strip  ^"  x  if"  X  18".  The  completed  exercise  is  shown 
by  Fig.  215. 

184.  In  considering  the  joint  between  the  stile  and  rail  as 
shown  by  Fig.  216,  three  new  features  will  be  observed;  the 
groove,  or  "  plow,"  which  is  to  receive  the  panel,  as  shown  at 
a,  Fig.  215  ;  the  beads  /,/;  and  the  mitered  corner  r^,  which 
allows  the  parts  to  be  plowed  and  beaded  as  shown,  without 
affecting  the  mortise-and-tenon  joint. 

Follow  the  dimensions,  and  line  for  the  mortise  and  tenon  as 
in  the  preceding  exercises,  supposing  the  rail  to  be  of  the  form 
indicated  by  the  dotted  outhne  ^'jc',  Fig.  216,  and  the  stile  to 
be  of  the  form  indicated  by  e/t/.     This  done,  add  the  lines  ec, 

Scade,     s"^ 


1 

- 

i' 

- 

4 
b 

a 

1"^ 

J  d 


J. 

1      w    , 

CI 

1          a    i      ^«. 

t 

_j ^^j 

ELEVATION. 


EDGE.  SIDE, 

cdj  and  r'^,  by  means  of  gauge  and  bevel.     Cut  the  mortise 
and  the  tenon,  after  which  plow  the  groove  a. 


BENCH    WORK. 


123 


185.  No  special  direction  can  be  given  for  using  the  plow 
(85),  except  that  it  is  to  be  used  from  the  working-edge;  but 
it  will  be  safe  to  practice  with  it  on  a  piece  of  waste  material 
before  applying  it  to  the  work. 


Scale,      3=1' 


^ 


—2.)    ■ 
SIDE. 


END. 


186.  Next,  the  beads  //  Fig.  215,  are  to  be  formed  on  the 
inside  edge  of  both  rail  and  stile,  that  is,  along  the  edges 
marked  d,  Fig.  216.  What  has  already  been  said  regarding 
the  use  of  the  plow,  may  also  be  said  of  the  beading-plane 

(84). 

The  mitered  corners  are  now  to  be  formed  by  cutting  with 
the  back- saw  to  lines  already  made,  and  then  the  joint  between 
stile  and  rail,  fitted  and  wedged  as 
in  Exercise  No.  14. 

The  frame  having  been  made 
ready,  attention  may  be  given  to 
the  panel.  The  panel  strip,  al- 
ready jointed,  must  be  "matched" 
by  forming  the  tongue  ^  and  the 
groove  a,  Fig.  217.  This  opera- 
tion brings  into  use  the  ^"  match- 
ing-planes  (82),  which  should  first 
be  tried  on  a  piece  of  waste  ma- 
terial. The  bead  r.  Fig.  217,  is 
to  be  made  with  a  y\"  beading- 
plane. 

Cut  the  panel  strip  into  lengths  suitable  for  forming  the 
complete  panel,  Fig.  218,  using  either  the  bevel  or  the  miter- 


124 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


box  in  obtaining  the  angle  of  the  ends.  The  fitting  of  the 
pieces  one  to  another  will  be  most  easily  done  if  they  are  cut 
in  order,  as  a,  b,  c,  etc. 

187.  In  using  the  miter-box,  Fig.  219,  the  work  ^,  while 
resting  on  the  bottom  of  the  box,  must  be  pressed  against  the 
side  b,  in  which  position,  the  saw,  guided  by  the  box  as  shown, 
will  cut  the  piece  at  a  miter.  The  opposite  guide  cc  may  be 
used  in  the  same  manner.     By  using  d  the  work  will  be  cut  off 


square.  To  hold  the  pieces  of  the  panel  together,  and  to  fasten 
the  panel  to  the  frame,  light  brads  may  be  inserted  in  the 
oblique  ends  of  the  panel  strips  shown  at  b,  Fig.  215,  or, 
what  is,  perhaps,  better,  glue  may  be  used.  If  the  door  were 
complete,  as  shown  by  Fig.  211,  the  panel  would  have  perfeci 
support  in  the  frame. 


PART  III 


ELEMENTS   OF   WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 
CARPENTRY.! 

i88.  It  is  the  work  of  the  carpenter  to  raise  and  inclose 
the  frame  of  a  building,  to  construct  its  floors  and  roofs,  and 
to  complete  all  parts  which  give  stability  to  the  structure ;  the 
joiner  makes  the  doors  and  windows,  erects  the  stairs,  and 
provides  such  interior  woodwork  as  will  finish  the  building  as 
a  habitation.  A  single  mechanic  may  perform  almost  every 
kind  of  work  required  in  the  construction  of  a  building,  thus 
eliminating  this  distinction  of  trades ;  but  for  convenience  in 
classification  we  may  imagine  the  work  of  the  carpenter  and 
that  of  the  joiner  to  be  quite  distinct. 

It  will  be  understood  that  neither  carpentry  nor  joinery  is 
confined  to  house-building.  While  all  bench  work  may  properly 
be  classed  as  joinery,  it  involves  forms  and  principles  that  are 
the  logical  outgrowth  of  carpentry.  For  this  reason,  in  the 
following  consideration  of  joints^  there  are  presented,  first, 
those  belonging  to  carpentry,  which  will  include  such  as  are 
used  in  uniting  timbers,  as  in  a  frame  for  a  building;  and, 
secondly,  those  belonging  to  joinery,  which  will  include  such 

1  Tredgold's  **  Carpentry,"  and  "  Notes  on  Building  Construction," 
publisht;d  by  Rivingtons,  have  furnished  many  of  the  facts  presented 
under  Carpentry  and  under  Joinery. 


126 


BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 


as  are  used  in  joining  small  planks  or  boards.  This  classifica- 
tion cannot  be  rigidly  adhered  to,  but  it  will  serve  the  purpose 
of  the  following  pages. 

189.  Any  two  timbers  may  be  united  in  the  direction  of 
their  length,  or  they  may  be  united  at  an  angle. 

Timbers  united  in  the  direction  of  their  length  are  usually 
subject  to  compressional  stress,  which  has  a  tendency  to  reduce 


Fig.  3QO 


Fio;.  sal 


their  length,  as  indicated  by  Fig.  220;  or  tensional  stress, 
which  has  a  tendency  to  increase  their  length,  Fig.  221;  or 
transverse  stress,  which  has  a  tendency  to  bend  them,  Fig.  222  ; 
or  to  two  of  these  stresses  at  the  same  time. 

190.  A  Timber  subjected  to  transverse  stress  must  always 
bend.  The  fibers  forming  that  surface  which  is  convex  or  has  a 
tendency  to  become  so  (as  the  lower  surface,  A,  Fig.  222)  will 
be  subject  to  tensional  strain,  while  the  fibers  forming  the 
opposite  surface  will  be  brought  under  compressional  strain 
This  is  shown  by  Fig.  223,  ^  representing  a  straight  timber, 


Fig.  QSQ 

c 


B 


^"^ 


Fig.  2Q3 


and  B  the  same  timber  bent.  It  follows,  then,  that  somewhere 
between  the  compressed  surface  and  the  extended  surface  there 
will  be  a  line  which  is  subject  to  neither  compressional  nor 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  12/ 

tensional  strain;  such  a  line  is  called  the  neutral  axis  of 
a  timber,  and  will  be  located  with  sufficient  accuracy  for 
the  purposes  of  this  work,  if  drawn  midway  between  the 
upper  and  lower  surfaces,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  CD^ 
Fig.  223. 

In  the  timber  that  has  been  forced  into  a  curved  form, 
Fig.  223,  the  fibers  within  the  neutral  axis  are  under  no  strain 
excepting  that  required  to  hold  the  compressed  portion  to  the 
extended  portion;  but  the  conditions  are  found  to  change 
rapidly  as  the  examination  extends  to  fibers  more  and  more 
remote  from  this  axis.  In  other  words,  the  strength  of  such 
a  timber  increases  rapidly  as  its  depth  increases.  For  example, 
if  Fig.  222  represents  a  2"  x  4"  timber  (2"  wide  and  4" deep) 
-supported  at  B^  B,  and  capable  of  sustaining  200  pounds  at  C, 
it  can  be  shown  that,  if  the  depth  is  doubled,  leaving  the  width 
the  same,  by  substituting  a  2"  x  8"  timber,  it  will  sustain  four 
times  the  original  load,  or  800  pounds ;  while  if  the  width  is 
doubled,  leaving  the  depth  the  same,  by  substituting  a  4"  x  4" 
timber,  it  will  sustain  only  twice  the  original  load,  or  400 
pounds.  The  law  is  that  the  strength  of  timbers  subject  to 
transverse  stress  varies  as  the  width  and  as  the  square  of 
the  depth.^ 

191.  Rankine  has  given  five  principles  to  be  observed  in 
designing  joints  and  fastenings.    They  are  as  follows  :  — 

I.  "To  cut  the  joints  and  arrange  the  fastenings  so  as  to 
weaken  the  pieces  of  timber  that  they  connect  as  little  as 
possible." 

1  By  what  has  been  given  it  will  be  seen  that  in  any  body  of  material 
the  portions  most  affected  in  resisting  transverse  stresses  are  those  lying 
near  the  upper  and  lower  surfaces  (Fig.  222).  In  view  of  this  fact,  parts 
that  are  to  receive  a  transverse  stress,  especially  if  of  iron,  are,  in 
important  structures,  formed  to  present  a  large  amount  of  material 
near  these  surfaces.  A  railroad  rail  or  an  I-beam  are  simple  illustra- 
tions ;  a  bridge  truss  is  an  elaboration  of  this  principle. 


128  BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 

2.  "To  place  each  abutting  surface  in  a  joint  as  nearly 
as  possible  perpendicular  to  the  pressure  which  it  has  to 
transmit." 

3.  "To  proportion  the  area  of  each  surface  to  the  pressure 
which  it  has  to  bear,  so  that  the  timber  may  be  safe  against 
injury  under  the  heaviest  load  which  occurs  in  practice,  and 
to  form  and  fit  every  pair  of  such  surfaces  accurately,  in  order 
to  distribute  the  stress  uniformly." 

4.  "To  proportion  the  fastenings  so  that  they  may  be  of 
equal  strength  with  the  pieces  which  they  connect." 

5.  "To  place  the  fastenings  in  each  piece  of  timber  so  that 
there  shall  be  sufficient  resistance  to  the  giving  way  of  the 
joint  by  the  fastenings  shearing  or  crushing  their  way  through 
the  timber." 

Complicated  forms  of  joints  are  likely  to  violate  Rule  3. 

Joints  connecting  Timbers  in  the  Direction  of  their 
Length. 

192.  A  Lapped  Joint,  shown  by  Fig.  224,  fastened  either 
by  straps  A  or  bolts  B,  is  clumsy,  but  very  strong. 

193.  A  Fished  Joint  in  its  simplest  form  is  shown  by 
Fig.  225,  and  is  so  called  because  of  the  two  pieces  marked  A 
which  are  known  as  fish-pieces  or  fish-plates. 

Fig.  Sa4-  Fig.  QQS 

ABA  ^ 

^''^~- ""^ ^ ^  I  V  TT   Tj'^^  T?  'r?i 


^^1|  ^  Ci  lijj  lip   i^L^i  C** 


Fish-pieces  may  be  of  either  wood  or  iron,  and  may  be 
employed  to  form  the  fished  joint  shown  in  Fig.  225,  or  applied 
to  more  complicated  joints  to  increase  their  strength. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  1 29 

When  subject  to  compressional  stress  a  fished  joint  should 
have  four  plates,  one  on  each  face.  When  subject  to  tensional 
stress  the  plates,  if  of  iron,  may  be  indented.  A,  Fig.  226 ;  or, 
if  of  hard  wood,  the  ends  may  be  tabled,  B,  Fig.  226,  or  keys 
inserted  as  shown  by  A  and  B,  Fig.  227.    Other  things  being 


equal,  if  the  number  of  keys  is  doubled,  the  thickness  of  each 
may  be  diminished  one-half  without  reducing  the  strength  of 
the  joint,  since  the  total  amount  of  abutting  surface  will  remain 
the  same. 

For  transverse  stress  the  fish-pieces  should  be  on  the  sides 
of  the  joint,  as  shown  by  Fig.  228. 

The  bolts  used  for  securing  fish-  ■^'^*  ^^® 

pieces,  or  employed  as  fastenings  | 

for  any  joint,    should  be    placed    y        ^'     '^    -  «— -- 
checker-wise.  Fig.  228,  so  that  no 
two  will  cut  the  same  cross-section. 

Fished  joints  are  often  used  in 
heavy  construction.    By  a  suitable  proportion  of  parts  the  joint 
can  be  made  almost  as  strong  as  the  timbers  it  connects. 

194.  Scarfed  Joints  are  those  in  which  the  two  timbers 
united  are  so  cut  and  fitted  as  to  make  the  joint  uniform  in 
size  with  the  timbers.  In  determining  the  form  of  any  scarf, 
the  principles  already  given  (191)  should  be  adhered  to  as 


Note.  —  The  student  should  observe  carefully  the  position  of  the 
lines  in  the  following  representations  of  joints,  so  that  he  may  clearly 
see  the  reasons  for  the  different  methods  of  construction.  He  should 
first  look  for  the  abutting  surfaces,  and  then  note  their  relation  to  the 
rest  of  the  joint. 


I30 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


closely  as  possible.  Some  scarfs  by  their  form  are  self-sustain- 
ing, but  compared  with  the  timbers  they  unite,  are  weak,  and 
are  seldom  used  unless  strengthened  by  bolts,  or  by  bolts  and 
fish-pieces. 

195.  A  scarfed  Joint  for  resisting  compression  is  shown  in 
its  simplest  form  by  Fig.  229.  When  strengthened  by  bolts 
and  fishf-pieces  it  forms  an  exceedingly  good  joint. 


PMg.  QQO 


Fig.  sr^o 


^m 


^-^. 


.JET- 


^^ 


196.  A  scarfed  joint  for  resisting  tension  is  shown  by 
Fig.  230.  The  key  A  supplies  the  abutting  surface  to  receive 
the  strain  tending  to  open  the  joint ;  in  thickness  it  is  equal  to 


Fij-. 


one-third  that  of  the  timber.  In  practice  this  joint  is  not  often 
employed  without  fish-pieces.  Fig.  231  shows  a  modification 
of  Fig.  235  which  will  serve  excellently  for  tensional  stress. 

197.  A  scarfed  joint  for  resisting  transverse  stresses  is  sub- 
ject to  compressional  stress  in  its  upper  portion,  and  to  ten- 
sional stress  in  its  lower  portion  (190),  and  must,  therefore, 


embody  forms  adapted  to  resisting  both,  as  shown  by  Fig.  232. 
A  single  fish-piece  is  usually  added  to  the  lower  side  of  the  joint. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 


131 


198.  A  scarfed  joint  for  resisting  tension  and  compression 
may  be  made  as  shown  by  Fig.  233;  or,  less  complicated  as 
shown  by  Fig.  234 ;  or,  more  secure  as  shown  by  Fig.  235. 


Fig.  233 


Fig.  S34 


199.    A  scaifed  joint  for  resisting  tension  and  tranverse 
stress  is  sometimes  made  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  236;  but  this 


Fisr.  235 


Fig.  236 


fe^^ 


form  is  not  so  good  as  the  joint  shown  by  Fig.  228,  if  in  the 
latter  case  the  fish-pieces  are  indented. 


Joints  connecting  Timbers  at  Right  Angles. 

200.    Halving",  Fig.  237,  forms  a  very  simple  joint,  and 
when  well  fastened,  a  strong  one.    It  is  frequently  employed. 


Fig.  23 

ll 


^ 


%^^) 


ELEVATION. 


Fig.  238 


ELEVATION. 


Fig.  2. 30 
A 


S7 


1         PLAN. 


P^ 


ELEVATION. 


132  BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 

Beveled-hahnng^  Fig.  238,  is  sometimes  resorted  to  with  the 
view  of  allowing  the  load  imposed  upon  A  in  the  direction  of 
the  arrow,  to  hold  the  joint  together.  Under  ordinary  circum- 
stances this  joint  is  likely  to  prove  weak,  because  of  a  lack  of 
material  at  the  shoulder  near  the  letter  A. 

201.  Notching.  —  In  placing  several  timbers  upon  another 
which  is  to  support  them,  in  the  manner  represented  by  Fig.  239, 
it  is  usually  desired  that  the  tops  of  the  supported  timbers  be 
uniform  in  height.  This  would  not  be  accomplished  by  simply 
placing  them  in  a  row,  because  timbers  of  the  same  nominal 
size  vary  in  their  breadth  and  depth.    The  ends  of  the  deeper 


^t 


ones  must  therefore  be  cut  or  "  notched,"  as  shown  by  Fig.  239, 
to  make  them  agree  in  depth  with  the  lightest  timber  of  all. 
Properly  speaking,  this  is  a  preparation  for  the  bearing  of  one 
timber  on  another,  and  not  a  joint ;  but  if  the  end  of  the  sup- 
ported timber  is  allowed  to  project,  as  represented  by  Fig.  240, 
a  true  joint  is  made. 

Double-7wtching  requires  a  notch  in  both  timbers.  Fig.  241. 

202.  Cogging  is  represented  by  Fig.  242.  It  has  some 
advantage  over  notching  in  point  of  strength,  inasmuch  as  the 
timber  B  has  its  full  depth  over  its  support.  The  "  cog  "  A 
makes  the  union  between  the  two  timbers,  as  a  joint,  quite  as 
satisfactory  as  the  double  notch. 

If  the  surrounding  conditions  require  it,  the  cog  may  be 
formed  near  one  edge,  instead  of  in  the  middle  of  the  tim- 
ber as  shown  by  the  illustration. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 


133 


203.  Mortise-and-Tenon  Joints.  — A  tenon  is  a  projection 
made  on  the  end  of  a  timber  to  form  part  of  a  joint ;  a  mortise 
is  an  opening  intended  to  receive  a  tenon.    In  Fig.  243,  T  is 


I^i} 


Fig.  343 


the  tenon ;  M,  the  mortise ;  /^,  the  root  of  the  tenon ;  S,  S, 
its  shoulders ;  and  r,  c  are  sometimes  called  the  *'  abutting 
cheeks  "  of  the  mortise. 


204.  When  a  vertical  timber  meets  a  horizontal  timber  the 
object  of  the  joint  is  simply  to  prevent  displacement;  and  a 
small,  short  tenon,  sometimes  called  a  "  stub  tenon,"  is  usually 
employed.  In  this  case,  the  tenon  should  not  reach  the  bottom 
of  the  mortise,  but  the  strain  should  be  taken  by  the  shoulders. 
Sometimes,  instead  of  making  a  stub  tenon,  the  whole  end  of 
one  timber  is  let  into  another,  and  the  first  is  then  said  to  be 
"  housed." 


H^ig.  S44 


I'll 


I 

END. 


'I  1*1 

M 

y 

i| 


Fig.  345 


m 


SIDE. 


r 


205.  When  a  horizontal  timber  meets  a  vertical  timber  the 
joint  may  be  formed  as  shown  by  Fig.  244,  or  made  much 
stronger,  if,  in  addition  to  the  tenon,  it  is  "blocked,"  Fig.  245, 
or  housed,  as  shown  by  Fig.  246. 


134 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


206,  When  one  horizontal  timber  meets  another  it  is  a  com- 
mon practice,  if  the  proportions  of  the  pieces  are  favorable, 
to  employ  a  double  mortise-and-tenon,  Fig.  247,  ^  being  sup- 


ITig.  346 


1 


f 


11 


ported  by  B.  This  method  cannot  be  recommended,  however, 
because  B  is  very  much  weakened  by  the  mortises.  With  refer- 
ence to  B  only,  the  best  place  for  the  mortise  is  on  the  neutral 
axis  (in  the  center  of  the  timber)  ;  while  with  reference  to  A 
only,  the  tenon  should  be  on  its  lower  edge,  that  it  may  be 
re-enforced  by  all  the  material  above  it.  If  timbers  of  equal 
depth  are  thus  joined,  they  will  appear  as  shown  by  Pig.  248  ; 
but  this  combination,  while  strong,  is  not  always  practica- 
ble because  of  surrounding  conditions.  For  this  reason  both 
mortise  and  tenon  are  often  placed  in  unfavorable  positions, 


FiR.  S4.S 


ITig.  S49 


H 


and  the  strength  of  the  joint  sacrificed.  Sometimes  the  form 
shown  by  Fig.  249  is  used,  but  this  has  little  in  its  favor,  except 
the  ease  with  which  it  is  made.  A  better  combination  is  shown 
by  Fig.  250,  which,  although  less  perfect  as  a  joint,  may  serve 
the  purpose  quite  as  well  as  Fig.  248,  if  the  timber  is  long 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 


35 


between  supports.  Tusk  tenons  are  used  to  overcome  the 
difficulties  presented  by  the  forms  already  described  when 
employed  in  heavy  construction.  This  arrangement  of  sur- 
faces, Fig.  251,  allows  the  mortise  to  be  in  the  center  of  the 


P^ig.  J2GO 


Fig.  1251 


I^ig.  S5J2 


timber,  and  to  be  small ;  and  it  also  allows  the  tenon,  by 
means  of  the  tusk  T^  to  present  a  low  abutting  surface  on  the 
supported  timber.  Its  strength  and  compactness  fully  com- 
pensate for  the  difficulty  of  fitting  it. 

Miscellaneous  Joints. 

207.  Oblique  Mortises  and  Tenons  may  be  used  to  join 
two  timbers  meeting  each  other  at  an  oblique  angle.  Pig.  252 
shows  a  common  form  in  which  the  abutting  surface,  repre- 
sented by  the  dotted  line  A^  is  perpendicular  to  the  cheeks  of 
the  mortise,  and  the  stress  transmitted  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrow  is  divided  between  the  surfaces  represented  by  the  dotted 


li'ig.  J254 


line  A  and  the  full  line  B.  A  bearing  along  the  latter  line 
becomes  unreliable  when  the  timbers  shrink,  or  when,  by  the 
settling  of  connected  parts,  the  surfaces  change  their  relative 
position.  For  this  reason  it  is  better  to  depend  mainly  on  the 
line  A,  which  is  less  affected  by  the  causes  mentioned.    To 


136 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


take  all  of  the  stress,  this  line  should  be  at  right  angles  to  the 
length  of  the  tenon-bearing  timber,  Fig.  253.  This,  however, 
while  apparently  a  well-formed  joint,  is  not  a  strong  one,  for 
the  tenon,  which  is  usually  equal  to  but  one- third  the  width  of 


Fig.  ass 


-r:S^<^=~~z.^ 


Fig.  S56 


the  timber,  must  alone  receive  the  thrust.  To  relieve  the  tenon 
by  increasing  the  area  of  the  abutting  surface,  the  end  of  A 
may  be  housed,  as  shown  by  Fig.  254,  or  the  joint  may  be 
strengthened  by  bolts  or  straps. 

The  mortise  for  the  joint  shown  by  Fig.  253  is  usually  made 
of  the  outline  a^c,  and  the  triangle  a'dc  is  not  filled.  This  is 
done  because  it  is  easier  to  cut  down  the  line  dc  than  the  line 
a'c.    There  seems  to  be  no  objection  to  this  practice. 

208.  A  Bridle  Joint  is  represented  by  Fig.  255.  It  pos- 
sesses the  advantage  of  having  its  parts  so  exposed  that  any 
inaccuracy  in  the  fit  is  always  apparent.    An  oblique  form  of 


Fig.  asr 


Fig.  asR 


1 

(If 

a 


bridle  joint.  Fig.  256,  is  certainly  worthy  of  study.  The  width 
of  the  bridle,  B,  Fig.  255,  should  not  exceed  one-fifth  the 
width  of  the  timber. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  I  37 

209.  A  Tie  Joint  is  shown  by  Fig.  257.  By  the  insertion 
of  the  tie  B,  the  timber  A  is  prevented  from  falling  away  in 
the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrow.  The  joint  illustrated  by 
Fig.  197  may  be  made  to  serve  the  same  purpose. 

210.  A  Chase  Mortise  is  a  mortise  elongated  as  shown  by 
Fig.  258.  Its  purpose  is  to  admit  a  cross-timber  between  two  tim- 
bers already  fixed.  When  the  cross-timber  is  in  place  that  por- 
tion of  the  mortise  which  is  unoccupied  may  be  filled,  and  the 
joint  thus  made  secure. 

JOINERY. 

211.  The  work  of  the  joiner,  unlike  that  of  the  carpenter, 
is  usually  where  it  must  bear  the  test  of  close  examination.  It 
is,  therefore,  necessary  that  the  several  pieces  of  which  a  whole 
work  is  formed,  be  united  by  joints  that  are  neat  in  appearance, 
or  so  made  as  to  be  hidden  from  sight.  Such  joints  must  be 
strong,  even  where  there  is  apparently  but  little  stress  upon 
them;  otherwise,  the  parts  are  likely  to  become  loose  from 
shrinking  and  swelling,  and  to  expose  unsightly  seams. 

Some  of  the  joints  already  described,  while  particularly 
adapted  to  uniting  timbers  in  carpentry,  may  under  given 
conditions  be  equally  suitable  for  the  smaller  work  in  joinery. 
It  may  also  be  true  that  some  which  are  treated  in  connection 
with  joinery  are  quite  as  useful  in  carpentry.  As  already  stated, 
the  classification  here  used  only  serves  to  fix  in  mind  a  few 
general  principles  governing  the  adaptation  of  joints  ;  it  cannot 
be  arbitrarily  adhered  to. 

The  rule  in  carpentry  that  makes  the  simplest  form  of  joint 
best,  does  not  always  hold  in  joinery,  because  the  methods  of 
the  joiner  admit  of  greater  accuracy,  and  also  because  the 
pieces  of  material  used  are  smaller,  and  consequently  less 
affected  by  shrinkage. 


138  BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 

Beads  and  Moldings. 

212.    Beads.  — A  single-quirked  bead  is  shown  by  Fig.  259, 
a  being  the  quirk ;  a  double- quirked  bead  is  shown  by  Fig.  260, 

TT'ig.  S6O 


and  a  staff,  or  angle,  bead  by  Fig.  261.  The  term  reeding  is 
applied  to  a  succession  of  beads,  as  shown  by  Fig.  262.  A 
bead  is  said  to  be  stuek  when  it  is  formed  on  the  piece  of 
material  on  which  it  is  used,  and  planted  when  it  is  formed  on 

Fig.  aei 

iTig.  sea 


a  separate  piece  and  glued  or  nailed  in  place.     The  size  of  a 
bead  is  indicated  by  the  distance  A,  Fig.  259. 

213.  Beads  are  sometimes  used  wholly  for  ornament,  but 
they  are  designed  chiefly  to  conceal  cracks  by  the  shadows 
they  cast.  It  is  a  principle  in  joinery  that  when  two  boards 
are  to  be  joined  they  must  be  made  as  one  complete  board, 
with  the  joint  so  concealed  that  no  crack  is  left,  either  when 
first  made  or  after  shrinkage  ;  or  there  should  be  a  very  decided 
crack,  which  will  appear  to  have  been  made  intentionally.  The 
first  kind  of  joint  is  made  by  means  of  glue ;  but  as  the  boards 
forming  a  surface  of  considerable  width  must  have  some  free- 
dom of  movement  on  account  of  shrinking  and  swelling  tend- 
encies, it  follows  that  when  large  surfaces  are  to  be  covered, 
glued  joints  cannot  be  used.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is 
found  best  to  make  no  attempt  at  a  close  joint,  but  to  allovv 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 


139 


the  pieces  to  shrink  and  swell  as  they  may,  and  depend  upon 
beads  to  conceal  the  cracks.  Thus  the  joint  shown  by  Fig.  263 
would  seem  to  have  been  intended  for  a  close  fit ;  but  since  it 


Fig.  204 


Fig.ses 


i 


,  ! 


iillli 


'lilil 


wi 


ml 


mini 


'I 


i 


ELEVATION. 


ELEVATIOW. 


is  not,  the  opening  is  allowed  to  remain,  and  a  bead  appHed, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  264.  The  crack  is  thus  converted  into  a  quirk 
of  a  bead,  and  is  not  noticeable  except  on  close  inspection. 

214.  A  chatnfer  is  a  narrow  surface  produced  usually  at 
an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  with  two  other  surfaces.  Like 
the  bead,  it  may  be  used  for  ornament,  or  for  disguising  cracks 
as  shown  by  Fig.  265. 

215.  A  stop  chamfer  is  one  which  does  not  extend  the  full 
length  of  the  piece  on  which  it  is  formed.    See  A^  Fig.  212. 

216.  Moldings,  while  of  the  same  character  with  beads,  are 
larger  and  often  much  more  complex  in  form.  They  may  be 
stuck  or  planted.  Among  the  most  simple  forms  is  the  ogee^ 
Fig.  266,  which  is  frequently  used  as  a  finish  for  the  edge  of 
a  projecting  board  —  a  table  top,  for  example. 


217.    A  round-nose^  Fig.  267,  is,  perhaps,  the  simplest  of 
all,  and  is  especially  useful  where  a  projecting  board  is  subject 


140  BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 

to  usage  severe  enough  to  destroy  sharp  angles  or  small  details, 
as  is  the  '*  tread  "  of  a  stair. 

218.  From  a  few  simple  forms,  of  which  the  two  shown  are 
types,  have  sprung  the  variety  of  styles  which,  for  the  most 
part,  have  no  designation  but  the  number  given  them  by  the 

Fig.  S66  Fig.  36^  Tfig.  268 


manufacturer.  While  most  of  them  may  be  stuck,  as  is  the 
ogee.  Fig.  266,  and  the  common  forms  shown  by  Fig.  268, 
they  are  generally  planted.  Fig.  269  shows  a  molding  at  A, 
planted  on  a  plain  surface  ;  at  B,  one  planted  in  an  angle ;  and 

Fig.  S69 

'■■  %     ^  '     ■ 

at  C,  a  rabbeted  (bolection)  molding  which  overlaps  one  of 
the  pieces  forming  the  angle. 

A  fillet^  is  a  light  strip  of  material  used  in  a  joint  as  a  fasten- 
ing, or,  in  connection  with  beads  and  moldings,  as  a  means  of 
ornamentation. 

219.  In  joining  boards,  use  is  frequently  made  of  some  out- 
side support,  which,  though  not  considere'd  a  part  of  the  joint, 
is  often  the  one  element  that  makes  the  adaptation  of  the  joint 
possible.  For  example,  two  boards  of  a  floor  may  be  joined 
to  each  other  in  a  variety  of  ways ;  but  they  are  both  supported 
and  retained  in  position  by  being  fastened  to  the  "  flooring 
joist."  A  consideration  of  the  joint  between  the  boards,  how- 
ever, need  not  involve  the  joist  except  as  a  fastening. 

1  Fillet,  or  thread. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  I4I 

Heading-Joints,  or  Joints  for  uniting  Pieces  in  the 
Direction  of  their  Length. 

220.  The  length  to  which  boards  may  be  sawed  is,  in 
practice,  Hmited  only  by  man's  ability  to  handle  and  trans- 
port them  with  economy.  For  most  purposes  the  lengths  of 
from  ten  to  twenty  feet,  which  are  supplied  by  the  trade,  serve 
as  well  as  longer  ones.  They  can  be  handled  more  easily 
—  in  other  words,  more  cheaply  —  than  boards  of  thirty  or 
forty  feet. 

Fig.  270  shows  a  square  heading-Joint  which  is  usually  "  cut 
under  "  a  little,  as  indicated  by  dotted  lines,  to  insure  a  close 
joint  on  the  surface. 

Fig.  Sro  Fig.  QTl 


/' 


y--";--^---:;^t^^^^  i^ee^^s^^ 


A  splayed  heading-Jot  fit  is  shown  by  Fig.  271.  As  a  joint, 
this  will  seem  more  perfect  than  Fig.  270,  but  it  is  more  difficult 
to  make,  and  the  latter  is  in  most  places  quite  as  satisfactory. 

Joints  for  uniting  Pieces  in  the  Direction  of  their  Width. 

221.  Joints  of  this  class  have  two  offices  to  perform  :  first, 
to  prevent  shrinkage  from  making  an  open  joint ;  and,  secondly, 
to  distribute  to  adjoining  boards  stress  that  may  be  received 
by  any  one  of  them  at  points  between  supports. 

222.  P^ig.  272  shows  at  A  d,  plain  butt  Joint,  which  has  no 
provision  against  opening,  and  in  which  the  boards  do  not 
support  each  other;  it  is  really  no  joint  at  all.  The  same 
figure  shows  at  B,  C,  and  Z>,  respectively,  2i  Jiile ted  Join  t,  a 
rabbeted  Joint,  and  a  matched  Joint,    Any  of   these  may  be 


142  BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 

beaded,  as  shown  by  Fig.  264.  The  marring  of  the  surface  by 
nail  heads  may  be  prevented  by  secret  nailing,  which  is  shown 
in  Fig.  272. 

A  B  c  D 


miwmffS'^r:r^p5r~j^im^s^j::Pr~u 


Joints  of  this  class  which  have  no  support  outside  of  them- 
selves must  be  held  by  glue. 

223.  A  Glued  Butt  Joint,  if  well  made,  will  be  quite  as 
strong  in  the  softer  woods  as  a  glued  matched  or  a  glued 
filleted  joint.  It  is  difficult,  however,  especially  if  the  boards 
are  long,  to  keep  the  two  pieces  forming  the  plain  joint  in 
proper  position  while  the  glue  is  setting.  Even  if  they  are 
clamped,  they  are  almost  sure  to  slip,  so  that  when  the  joint 
has  finally  become  firm,  the  boards  may  have  assumed  a 
position  similar  to  that  shown.  Fig.  273.    The  fillet,  and  the 

Fig.  27-3  .  Fig.sr^ 


I 


Z7 


tongue  and  groove  (B  and  Z>,  Fig.  272),  are  useful  in  keeping 
the  parts  in  place  until  the  glue  has  hardened.  Dowels  may 
be  used  for  the  same  purpose,  Fig.  274.  If  they  are  placed 
at  short  intervals,  and  are  well  fitted,  they  will  add  strength  to 
the  joint. 

224.  Gleating.  —  A  cleat  is  a  piece  of  material  fastened 
across  the  width  of  a  board  to  prevent  its  warping ;  if  the  sur- 
face is  composed  of  several  pieces,  the  cleat  is  also  designed 
to  hold  them  together.    It  may  be  applied  to  the  back  of  the 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 


143 


pieces,  as  shown  by  Fig.  275,  or  across  the  ends,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  276.  As  the  grain  of  the  cleat  is  at  right  angles  to  that 
of  the  surface  to  which  it  is  fastened,  and  since  wood  shrinks 


Fig.  srs 

(////.|\\'1i'/|:|HiiI 


Fig.  are 


k 


'I; 


? 

'i 


l'\A|'/.-hn.|-l|| 


l^^-CLEAT 


li|— CL 


and  swells  more  across  the  grain  than  with  it,  there  is  likely 
to  be  some  movement  of  one  on  the  other,  and  the  fasten- 
ings used  to  secure  the  cleat  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
allow  it.  Otherwise,  the  edges  of  the  board  will  be  rigidly  held, 
and  shrinkage  will  result  in  the  formation  of  large  cracks,  by  the 
splitting  of  the  board  somewhere  near  the  center.  Screws  are 
undoubtedly  the  best  fastenings,  as  they  will  yield,  to  some 
degree,  without  becoming  loosened.  Nails  frequently  answer 
every  purpose,  and  dowels  are  sometimes  used.  Glue  is  un- 
serviceable. When  it  is  used  alone  the  cleats  soon  drop  off ; 
and  when  used  with  other  fastenings  it  either  gives  way  en- 
tirely, or  breaks  at  intervals,  causing  local  cracks. 


225.  Side-clcating,  Fig.  275,  is  the  more  effective  of  the  two 
methods,  because  the  cleat  may  be  larger  and,  for  this  reason, 
the  fastenings  be  applied  to  better  advantage.  But  when  ex- 
posed to  view,  side  cleats  are  unsightly,  and  are  often  objec- 
tionable because  they  increase  the  thickness  of  the  piece  as  a 
whole.  The  proportions  of  the  cleat  may  vary  with  the  duty 
expected  of  it.  Other  things  being  equal,  a  deeper  cleat  Hke 
A  will  be  more  effective  than  B.    It  is  more  difficult,  however, 


144 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


to  put  screws  or  other  fastenings  through  A  than  through  B ; 
either  may  be  fastened  by  screws  inserted  from  the  face  of 
the  board. 


226.  End  cleats  are  neat  in  appearance,  and,  when  decided 
warping  tendencies  are  not  to  be  overcome,  do  good  service. 
To  supplement  the  fastenings  a  narrow  tongue  may  be  formed 
on  the  board  to  fit  a  corresponding  groove  in  the  cleat,  as 
shown  in  connection  with  B,  Fig.  276. 


227. 


If  only  one  surface  of  a  cleated  board  is  to  be  made 
use  of, — a  drawing  board,  for  example, 
—  the  strain  on  the  cleat  may  be  les- 
sened by  a  succession  of  saw  cuts  on 
the  lower  side,  extending  the  length 
of  the  board,  as  shown  by  Fig.  277. 
By  this  means  the  warping  tendency 
of  a  seven-eighths-inch  board  may  be 
Section  A.  B.  reduced  to  that  of  a  quarter-inch  or 
even  a  one-eighth-inch  board. 


Joints  for  uniting  Pieces  at  Right  Angles. 

228.  Butt  Joints.  —  A  plain  joint  of  this  kind  is  represented 
by  Fig.  278.  The  joint  may  be  concealed  by  a  bead,  as  indi- 
cated by  dotted  lines  ;  and  when  the  material  is  thick  and  it  is 


Fis?.  S'7'8 


Fig.  sro 


ITig.  Q8I 


Fig.  jaso 

J 

Hi 


desirable  to  prevent  an  exposure  of  end  grain  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, the  joint  may  be  modified,  as  shown  by  Fig.  279.  This 
form  also  may  be  beaded.    When  great  strength  is  demanded 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 


145 


a  housed  joint  may  be  made,  Fig.  280.  The  sides  and  ends  of 
troughs  which  are  required  to  be  water-tight,  are  frequently 
made  in  this  way.    If  there  can  be  no  projection,  as  A,  Fig.  280, 


TTif?.  ;2Ra 


^ 


i' 


m 


Fig.  S 84 


^ 


this  joint  may  be  modified  as  shown  by  Fig.  281,  but  it  will 
lose  in  strength. 


229.  Miter  Joint.  —  Fig.  282  shows  a  plain  miter  joint.  Its 
sole  recommendation  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  exposes  no  end 
grain,  for,  from  a  mechanical  point  of  view,  it  is  weak  and 
faulty,  —  weak  because  difficult  to  fasten,  and  faulty  because, 
as  the  two  pieces  forming  the  joint  shrink,  each  will  become 
narrower  on  the  lines  A,  A,  and  produce  the  change  of  form 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines  B  and  B\  As  a  result  of  this  change 
either  the  angle  C  between  the  two  pieces  must  become  smaller, 
or  the  joint  must  open,  forming  a  wide  crack  on  the  inside, 
which  is  represented  by  the  triangle  BDB\ 

Miter  joints  between  two  pieces  of  different  thickness  are 
made  in  the  form  illustrated  by  Fig.  283.  Occasionally  this  is 
used  when  the  pieces  are  of  the  same  thickness. 
Fig.  284  ;  for  while  it  has  the  advantages  of  the 
plain  miter  joint,  it  is  stronger  and  less 
affected  by  shrinkage.  Fig.sss 


iTig.  see 


230.  (Mue,  and  brads  or  nails,  the 
usual  fastenings  for  miter  joints,  may 
be  supplemented  by  a  fillet  inserted  as  shown  by  A,  Fig.  285, 
or  by  small  pieces  inserted  in  saw  cuts  which  are  made  across 
the  angle  of  the  joint,  as  shown  by  A,  Fig.  286. 


146  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

231.  Dovetail  Joints  have  already  been  discussed  (171-176). 
They  can  be  made  much  stronger  than  any  of  the  other  angle 
joints   herein  considered.    The   plain    dovetail,    Fig.   199,   is 


sometimes  objectionable  because  it  exposes  end  gi'ain,  but  the 
checkered  appearance  of  a  well-made  joint  almost  counter- 
balances this  objection.  In  the  lap-dovetail  joint,  however, 
Fig.  201,  the  end  grain  disappears  from  one  face,  and  in  the 
blind  dovetail,  Fig.  203,  from  both  faces.  The  blind  dovetail 
is  certainly  all  that  could  be  desired  as  far  as  strength  and 
appearance  are  concerned,  but  it  is  difficult  to  make. 

232.  Mortise-and-Tenon  Joints  in  joinery  are  different  from 
those  employed  in  carpentry  only  in  the  proportions  of  their 
parts  and  the  accuracy  with  which  they  are  fitted.  When  the 
thickness  B,  Fig.  287,  of  the  pieces  joined  is  the  same,  the 
thickness  ^  of  a  simple  tenon  may  vary  from  one-third  to 
one-half  that  of  the  piece  on  which  it  is  formed,  practice 
tending  toward  the  larger  figure  ;  and  its  breadth  C  ought  not 
to  exceed  seven  times  its  thickness.    For  the  thickness  given, 

Fig.  ass 


Fig.  287  shows  a  tenon  of  the  greatest  breadth  allowable.  The 
breadth  is  thus  limited  because  the  sides  of  the  mortise  derive 
their  support  from  the  sohd  material  at  its  ends,  and  they 
become  too  weak  for  good  service  when  the  limit  named  is 
exceeded.  Again,  the  tenon,  if  too  broad,  will  not  stand  the 
pressure  of  wedging,  but  is  likely  to  become  distorted,  thus 
putting  additional  strain  on  the  mortise  and  frequently  causing 
it  to  split.    See  Fig.  288. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 


47 


233.  When  the  piece  on  which  the  tenon  is  to  be  formed  is 
very  broad,  a  single  tenon,  if  employed,  leaves  wide  shoulders, 
AB,  Fig.  289.    These  are  open  to  objection  because  of  the 


Fig.  SQO 


H^;„,iLmT~— ^ 


tendency  of  the  tenon  piece  to  warp  so  that  its  surface  at 
D  will  not  agree  with  the  surface  of  the  piece  it  joins  at  C. 
Under  such  circumstances  a  double  tenon,  Fig.  290,  may  be 
used.  This  will  give  the  support  that  is  needed,  and  will  not 
violate  the  principle  laid  down  in  232.  Double  tenons,  how- 
ever, while  they  obviate  one  difficulty  introduce  another.  The 
tenons  are  unyielding,  and,  if  the  piece  is  very  wide,  its  shrink- 
age is  likely  to  produce  a  crack  between  them,  as  denoted  by 
the  dotted  lines  A,  Fig.  290. 

234.  Haimching  is  a  device  by  which  the  tenon  proper 
is  supplemented  by  very  short  tenons,  or  "  haunches,"  as 
indicated  by  the  dotted  outline.  Fig.  291.    These  prevent  the 


Fig.  291 


Fig.  SDQ 


^ 


HPI 


tenon  piece  from  warping  and  the  danger  of  its  splitting 
from  shrinkage  is  not  increased.  If  the  piece  shown  by 
Fig.  289  were  haunched,  the  imperfection  it  illustrates  would 
be  removed. 


I4S  BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 

235.  Four  tenons  may  be  used  in  a  single  joint  when  the 
pieces  to  be  united  are  very  thick  and  wide,  Fig.  292.  By 
their  use  the  parts  are  made  small  enough  to  prevent  shrinkage 
from  producing  a  bad  joint. 

236.  In  forming  a  joint  at  the  extremity  of  the  mortise  piece, 
a  single  tenon,  if  employed,  must  be  cut  away  at  one  side,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  293.  Such  a  joint  may  be  haunched,  Fig.  294, 
or  if  the  pieces  are  sufficiently  wide,  two  tenons  may  be  used, 
Fig.  213. 

Fig.  Q9.3  F^ig.  i294 


a 


m 

237.  Mortise-and-tenon  joints  in  joinery  are  capable  of  all 
the  modifications  of  form  which  they  are  made  to  assume  in 
carpentry.  They  may  be  housed,  for  example,  or  made  in  any 
of  the  oblique  forms. 

Paneling. 

238.  A  Panel  is  a  board,  or  a  combination  of  boards,  em- 
ployed to  fill  an  opening  within  a  frame.  Thus,  in  Fig.  295, 
the  pieces  i^ constitute  the  frame,  and  the  pieces  A,B,  C,  and  D 
are  panels.  The  primary  purpose  of  this  arrangement  is  to 
give  an  extended  surface  of  wood  so  constructed  that  the 
pieces  of  which  it  is  made  shall  be  well  and  neatly  fastened, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  the  dimensions  and  the  general  appear- 
atice  of  the  whole  be  unaffected  by  shrinking  or  swelling.  To 
enhance  the  attractiveness  of  the  surface,  both  frame  and  panel 
are  frequently  embellished,  sometimes  so  richly  that  we  lose 
sight  of  the  mechanical  necessity  of  the  panel,  and  come  to 
regard  it  as  a  means  of  decoration. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 
Fig.  SOS 


149 


150  BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 

239.  The  Frame  taken  by  itself  is,  in  general,  made  up  of 
vertical  and  horizontal  pieces  united  by  mortise-and-tenon 
joints.  Vertical  pieces  extending  the  full  length  of  any  frame 
are  called  "  stiles,"  and  horizontal  pieces,  ''  rails."  Each  of 
these  parts  should  be  as  narrow  as  is  consistent  with  the  degree 
of  strength  required.  The  width  of  a  rail  should  never  be  more 
than  twice  that  of  the  stile,  which,  as  a  rule,  should  not  exceed 
four  and  a  half  inches.  A  consideration  of  Fig.  295  will  show 
that,  although  the  door  is  three  or  more  feet  wide,  the  only  sur- 
faces whose  shrinkage  can  affect  the  width  are  the  two  4^-inch 
stiles.  Large  surfaces  are  covered  not  by  increasing  the  size 
of  the  parts  but  by  increasing  their  number. 

A  fillet  e  is  often  inserted  to  cover  the  end  of  the  tenons, 
which  would  otherwise  show  on  the  edge  of  the  door. 

240.  The  panel  may  be  either  fastened  to  the  back  of  the 
frame  or  inserted  in  a  groove,  or  "  plow,"  formed  in  the  frame 
to  receive  it.  In  either  case,  provision  must  be  made  for 
shrinking  and  swelling.  When  fastened  to  the  back,  screws  are 
usually  found  to  make  a  sufficiently  yielding  joint.  When  fitted 
into  the  frame  no  fastening  is  needed  beyond  that  derived 
from  its  position.  It  must  fit  loosely  enough  to  draw  out  on 
shrinking,  but  not  so  loosely  as  to  rattle. 

In  Fig.  295,  ^  is  a  plain  panel  screwed  to  the  back  of  the 
frame,  and  the  frame  about  it  is  stop-chamfered.  This  is, 
probably,  the  simplest  combination  of  frame  and  panel.  In 
common  with  all  panels  fastened  in  this  way,  it  is  best  adapted 
to  work  that  is  to  be  seen  from  one  side  only,  as  a  closet  door 
or  the  permanent  lining  of  a  room. 

B  shows  a  plain  panel  fastened  to  the  back  of  a  frame  which 
is  ornamented  by  a  molding. 

C  differs  from  B  only  in  being  let  into  the  frame  instead  of 
being  screwed  to  the  back.  The  reverse  face  c  may  be  orna- 
mented by  a  molding  in  the  same  manner  as  C,  or  by  a  chamfer. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  I  5  I 

D  shows  a  raised  panel  embellished  by  a  rabbeted  molding. 
The  reverse  face  ^/  is  a  plain  raised  panel. 

A  panel  and  frame  may  be  plain  on  one  side  and  ornamented 
on  the  other ;  the  ornamentation  on  one  side  may  differ  from 
that  on  the  other,  or  the  sides  may  be  similar ;  and  any  form 
of  embellishment  that  may  properly  be  applied  to  board  sur- 
faces may  be  used  in  connection  with  this  work. 

FASTENINGS. 

241.  Pins  are  employed  principally  as  a  means  of  holding 
tenons  in  mortises.  In  carpentry  one  pin,  generally,  is  used  in 
each  joint,  its  diameter  varying  from  one-sixth  to  one-fourth 
the  width  of  the  tenon.  It  is  commonly  placed  at  a  distance 
from  the  abutting  cheeks  of  the  mortise,  equal  to  one-third 
the  length  of  the  tenon.  But  to  secure  the  maximum  strength 
of  the  joint,  its  exact  location  in  any  particular  case  must  be 
fixed  with  reference  to  the  character  of  the  material,  and  also 
to  the  relative  thickness  of  the  tenon  and  the  cheeks  of  the 
mortise.  In  joinery  it  is  found  best  to  use  two  or  more  pins, 
and,  whatever  the  proportions  of  the  joint  may  be,  these  rarely 
exceed  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  are  inserted 
very  near  the  abutting  cheeks  of  the  mortise,  so  that  that  part 
of  the  mortise  between  them  and  the  shoulder  of  the  tenon 
will  not  shrink  enough  to  make  an  open  joint. 

Square  pins  are  better  than  round  ones,  but  the  latter  are 
more  easily  fitted  and,  therefore,  more  used. 
Drawl)ori?ig  has  already  been  described  (168). 

242.  Wedges. — The  most  common  use  of  wedges  is  illus- 
trated by  Fig.  213  in  connection  with  Exercise  No.  14,  which 
requires  wedges  to  be  dipped  in  glue  and  driven  between  the 
tenon  and  the  e-ds  of  the  mortise.  Wedges  are  also  driven 
in  saw  cuts  made  in  the  end  of  the  tenon  for  the  purpose  of 
expanding  it,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  296,  which  shows  at  A  a. 


152 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


section  of  a  joint  before  the  wedges  are  driven,  and  at  B  a. 
section  of  the  finished  joint.  The  saw  cut  should  extend 
somewhat  deeper  than  the  point  reached  by  the  wedge.  If 
the  tenon  is  broad,  or  if  a  considerable  increase  in  breadth  is 


Fig.  S 96 


Kig.  ^Or 


^!!l 


WEDGE 
1 


./v/^ 


p 


required,  more  than  one  wedge  must  be  used.  When  there 
are  more  than  two,  a  large  one  should  be  inserted  in  the  cen- 
ter and  smaller  ones  on  each  side,  as  shown  by  Fig.  297,  the 
wedges  ready  for  driving  at  A  and  the  joint  finished  at  B. 

243.  Blind-wedging  is  sometimes  resorted  to  when  the  mor- 
tise does  not  extend  through  the  piece.  As  shown  by  Fig.  298, 
the  mortise  is  enlarged  at  the  bottom  and  the  wedges  started 
in ;  then,  as  the  pieces  are  driven  together,  the  ends  of  the 
wedges  strike  against  the  bottom  of  the  mortise  and  spread 
the  tenon.    When  driven,  the  tenon  cannot  be  withdrawn. 

Fig.  S 98 

Fig.  299 


244.  Keys  differ  from  wedges  in  respect  to  their  sides, 
which  are  parallel  or  nearly  so.  The  key  may  be  a  single 
piece,  as  shown  in  the  joint.  Fig.  197,  or,  what  is  better, 
made  as  two  wedges.  Fig.  299.  These  may  be  put  in  place 
when  in  the  relative  position  shown  by  AB^  after  which,  by 
driving  them  upon  each  other,  as  indicated  by  A,  B,  the  joint 
may  be  tightened.  The  parallelism  of  the  outside  edges,  which 
are  in  contact  with  the  joint,  is  always  maintained. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 


153 


245.  Dowels  are  round  wooden  pins  of  small  diameter 
used  to  strengthen  a  joint.  They  should  be  dipped  in  glue 
and  driven  at  a  tight  fit  into  holes  made  for  their  reception. 
They  may  be  carried  entirely  through  one  piece  and  into  the 
other,  Fig.  277,  or  inserted  as  shown  by  Fig.  274. 

Dowels  may  be  made  at  the  bench  by  the  plane,  or  they 
may  be  turned.  When  planed,  they  will  be  improved  in  sec- 
tion if  driven  through  a  round  hole  in  a  piece  of  iron  or  steel. 
They  are  supplied  by  the  trade,  of  all  ordinary  diameters,  and 
in  lengths  of  several  feet,  so  that  the  consumer  has  but  to  cut 
them  to  lengths  suited  to  his  purposes,  and  point  them. 

Shoe  pegs  serve  well  as  small  dowels.  After  being  dipped  in 
glue  they  should  be  driven  in  brad-awl  holes. 

Whenever  fastenings  are  required  to  be  so  placed  that  sub- 
sequent operations  bring  the  cutting  tools  about  them,  dowels 
are  preferable  to  brads  or  nails,  since  they  may  be  planed  off 
without  injury  to  the  tool. 


Fig.  r70 
A        B 


246.    Nails  are  classified  according  to  the  process  by  which 
they  are  made,  the  material  used,  their  form  and  proportions, 
and  the  use  for  which  they  are  intended.    Iron  and  steel  are 
the  most  common  materials,  but  when 
Fig.  :joo     these  would  be  destroyed  by  corrosion, 
•  W     copper  and  "  galvanized  "  iron  are  used. 
The  forms  of  most  importance  to  the 
bench-worker  may  be  classed  as  eom- 
mon   and  finishing  (or   casing)   nails. 
Their  comparative  proportions  are  illus- 
trated by  Figs.  170  and  300,  the  former 
representing  a  common,  and  the  latter 
a  finishing  nail.    It  is  evident  that  the 
greater  strength  of  the  common  nail 
makes  its  use  desirable  when   there  is  sufficient  material  to 
receive  it  properly,  and  when  the  appearance  of  the  head  on 


154 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


the  surface  is  not  objectionable.  The  finishing  nail  may  be  used 
in  more  delicate  material,  and  makes  a  smaller  scar  on  the  work. 
Cut  nails  are  so  called  because,  in  the  process  of  manu- 
facture, each  nail  is  cut  from  a  plate  of  metal.  The  plate  has 
a  width  equal  to  the  length  of  the  nail,  and  a  thickness  equal 
to  its  breadth.  Generally  speaking,  all  nails  of  the  form  shown 
by  Figs.  170  and  300  are  cut. 

Fig.  301  Wire  nails,  Fig.  301,  are  now  in  general  use. 

Their  strength  and  tenacity  are  unequaled.  They 
are  made  from  drawn  wire  in  sizes  varying  from 
that  of  the  smallest  brad  to  that  of  the  largest 
spike.  The  terms  used  to  describe  cut  nails,  as 
to  size  and  form,  are  also  applied  to  wire  nails. 
The  holding  power  of  a  wire  nail  is  often  inferior 
to  that  of  a  cut  nail. 


247.  The  length  of  nails  is  indicated  by  numbers  prefixed 
to  the  word  "  penny,"  as  6-penny,  8-penny,  —  terms  ^  which  are 
now  used  arbitrarily,  though  originally  they  were  doubtless 
significant. 

The  length  of  nails  of  ordinary  sizes  is  given  as  follows  :  — 

A     3-penny  nail  is  one  and  one-fourth  inches  long. 

A     4-penny  "  one  and  one-half 

A     5-penny  "  one  and  three-fourths 

A     6-penny  "  two 

A     7-penny  "  two  and  one-fourth 

An  8-penny  "  two  and  one-half 

A  lo-penny  "  three 

A  i2-penny  "  three  and  one-fourth 

A  20-penny  "  four 


1  It  has  been  suggested  that  they  once  indicated  the  value  or  price 
of  ,a  given  number  of  nails,  6-penny  nails  being  sold  at  sixpence  per 
hundred,  and  8-penny  nails  for  eightpence  per  hundred.  Another  ex- 
planation is  that  penny ^  as  here  used,  is  a  corruption  of  pottttd,  6-penny 
meaning  that  a  thousand  nails  weighed  six  pounds  ;  8-penny,  that  a 
thousand  weighed  eight  pounds ;  and  so  on. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  I  55 

248.  Brads  are  small  finishing  nails,  now  usually  of  wire. 
Their  size  is  expressed  in  inches  and  fractions  of  an  inch,  and 
ranges  from  one-fourth  of  an  inch  to  two  inches. 

249.  Tacks  are  useless  for  fastening  pieces  of  wood  to  each 
other,  but  are  indispensable  when  lighter  material,  such  as  cloth 
or  leather,  is  to  be  fastened  to  wood.  They  vary  in  form  and 
size  with  the  particular  use  for  which  they  are  intended.  Their 
size  is  expressed  by  a  number  prefixed  to  the  word  "  ounce."  ^ 
The  length  of  the  more  common  sizes  varies  as  follows :  — 


A     i-ounce 

tack 

is  three-sixteenths 

A     2-ounce 

one-fourth 

A     vounce 

three-eighths 

A     4-ounce 

seven-sixteenths 

A     6-ounce 

one-half 

An  8-ounce 

nine-sixteenths 

A  lo-ounce 

five-eighths 

250.  Common  Screws  are  either  bright  or  blued,  steel  or 
brass,  round-headed  01  flat-headed. 

Bright  screws  are  finished  by  polishing.  When  blued,  the 
luster  of  the  polish  has  been  taken  off  by  heat  or  an  acid,  and 
a  deep  blue  finish  produced.  Blued  screws  will  not  rust  so 
easily  as  bright  screws,  and  in  most  work  they  look  better  — 
considerations  which  apply  with  still  greater  force  to  the  use  of 
brass  as  a  material  instead  of  steel. 

Flat-headed  screws,  shown  by  Fig.  124,  are  the  most  com- 
mon. When  used  on  finished  surfaces,  the  heads  should  be 
sunk  below  the  general  level  and  the  hole  above  them  filled. 
When  this  is  not  convenient,  round  heads,  which  in  the  finished 
work  will  appear  above  the  surface,  are  frequently  employed. 

1  This  expression  may  have  once  represented  the  weight  of  1000 
tacks;  for  example,  1000  tacks  y\''  long  weighed  one  ounce,  and  were 
therefore  called  "  one-ounce  "  tacks. 


156  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

The  size  of  screws  is  indicated  by  their  length  in  inches  or 
fractions  of  an  inch,  and  by  the  diameter  of  the  wire  forming 
the  body ;  this  diameter  is  expressed  by  a  number  which  refers 
to  a  "standard  screw  gauge."  The  sizes  of  the  screw  gauge 
range  from  No.  o,  which  represents  a  diameter  of  a  little  less 
than  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch,  to  No.  30,  which  represents  a 
diameter  somewhat  greater  than  seven-sixteenths  of  an  inch. 
The  size  of  a  screw  two  inches  long  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
in  diameter  would  be  written  2"  x  No.  15. 

251.  Glue  is  chiefly  of  two  kinds,  animal  and  fish.  Animal 
glue  is  a  product  obtained  from  the  refuse  of  tanneries 
(bone,  horn,  hoofs,  and  bits  of  hide),  which  is  made  to  give 
up  the  glutinous  matter  it  contains  by  being  boiled  under 
pressure.  Fish  glue  is  extracted  from  the  spawn  and  en- 
trails of  fish.  As  prepared  for  the  market,  both  are  generally 
in  the  form  of  cakes,  varying  in  thickness  from  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  to  very  thin  chips,  according  to  the  quality  and  character 
of  the  glue.  For  bench  work  these  are  dissolved  in  water,  and 
the  mixture  applied  hot.  For  convenience  in  dissolving  the  glue, 
a  glue-pot  is  used,  which  is  an  arrangement  of  two  vessels,  one 
within  another,  the  inner  being  for  glue,  the  outer  for  water. 
Heat  is  communicated  in  any  convenient  way  to  the  water,  and 
the  water  in  turn  heats  the  glue.  The  use  of  the  vessel  of 
water  is  to  prevent  the  glue  from  burning. 

Gluing,  —  When  ready  for  use,  the  glue  should  be  hot  and 
of  the  consistency  of  thin  sirup.  It  must  be  applied  with  a 
brush,  in  a  thin,  uniform  coating,  to  both  surfaces  that  are  to 
be  joined,  and  must  be  well  brushed  into  the  pores  of  the 
wood.  Too  much  glue  will  prevent  the  pieces  from  coming 
together  in  the  joint.  The  application  should  be  made  as 
quickly  as  possible  because  the  glue  begins  to  cool  and  set  as 
soon  as  it  is  taken  from  the  pot ;  it  will  set  less  quickly  if 
the  pieces  to  be  glued  are  warmed.    After  the  pieces  have 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  157 

been  put  together,  they  should  be  rubbed  to  squeeze  out  the 
surplus  glue,  and  finally  clamped  in  place  and  allowed  to  remain 
until  dry  —  at  least  twelve  hours. 

In  gluing  large  surfaces,  such  as  veneers  which  must  be 
secured  to  their  foundations,  a  considerable  amount  of  appa- 
ratus is  required.  Before  the  glue  is  applied,  a  heating  box  or 
chamber,  which  is  maintained  at  a  high  temperature  by  coils 
of  steam  pipe,  is  used  to  heat  the  pieces  to  be  united,  and 
very  heavy  clamps  are  required  to  squeeze  the  superfluous  glue 
from  the  joint.  It  is  important  to  remember  that  while  the 
film  of  glue  uniting  two  pieces  should  always  be  continuous, 
the  pieces  themselves  should  be  brought  as  closely  together  as 
possible. 

When  end  grain  is  to  be  glued  it  should  first  be  sized  ;  that  is, 
coated  with  thin  glue,  in  order  to  fill  the  pores  of  the  wood, 
and  allowed  to  dry  before  the  joint  is  made.  Otherwise,  the 
glue  that  is  put  into  the  joint  is  drawn  off  into  the  grain  and 
becomes  useless  as  a  fastening. 

An  example  of  good  gluing  is  found  in  the  common  lead 
pencil,  the  wooden  portion  of  which  consists  of  two  strips 
glued  together.  The  line  of  the  joint  can  readily  be  traced 
upon  the  end  of  the  pencil,  but  if  the  work  is  well  done,  it  will 
be  found  that  while  the  joint  is  a  strong  one,  the  amount  of 
glue  between  the  pieces  is  so  small  as  to  be  scarcely  visible. 

Liquid  glues  are  supplied  by  the  trade.  They  require  no 
heating  and  are,  therefore,  always  ready  for  use. 


PART   IV. 


TIMBER   AND    ITS   PREPARATION   FOR   USE. 

TIMBER. 

252.  Timber  is  that  portion  of  the  woody  material  of  trees 
which  is  serviceable  for  carpentry  and  joinery.  If  the  trunks 
of  timber-bearing  trees  are  cut  into  sections,  they  are  found  to 
be  composed  of  concentric  cylindrical  layers,  separated  from 
each  other  and  evidently  quite  distinct.  One  of  these  layers, 
Fig.  302,  is  formed  each  year  during  the  period  of  growth  of 
the  tree,  though  false  rings  are  sometimes  produced  by  inter- 
ruptions of  growth,  such  as  are  caused  by  drouths,  or  by  the 
destruction  of  foliage  by  caterpillars.  The  rings  vary  in  thick- 
ness, in  density,  and  in  color,  according  to  the  rapidity  of 
growth,  the  length  of  the  season,  and  other  circumstances 
which  may  change  from  year  to  year. 

The  outer  portion  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree  consists  of  a  pro- 
tective layer  of  bark.  Next  to  the  bark  is  the  bast,  then  the 
cambium  layer,  or  zone  of  growth,  and  then  the  sapwood, 
which  is  usually  lighter  in  color  and  less  strong  and  dense  than 
the  interior  portions,  or  hearhvood.  As  indicated  by  its  name, 
the  ascent  of  sap  takes  place  through  the  sapwood.  Water 
containing  small  quantities  of  minerals  in  solution  is  taken  up 
by  the  fibrous  rootlets  and,  passing  from  cell  to  cell  through 
the  thin  walls,  ascends  through  the  outer  layers  of  roots,  trunk. 


TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION. 


159 


and  branches  to  the  leaves.  Here,  under  the  influence  of 
light  and  heat,  the  greater  part  of  the  water  is  given  off  in  the 
form  of  vapor,  and  another  part,  with  the  salts  it  contains,  is 
converted  into  food  materials.  These  travel  downward  from 
leaf  to  branchlet,  through  the  outer  layers  of  the  trunk  to  the 
roots,  disposing  of  themselves  wherever  they  are  needed  along 
the  way,  in  forming  new  wood,  new  buds,  and  new  roots.  These 
movements  of  water  upward  and  food  materials  downward,  take 
place  simultaneously,  the  water  (sap)  moving  through  the  sap- 
wood,  and  the  food  materials  through  the  bast  and  inner  cortex. 

Fig.  303 


As  the  tree  grows  older,  the  cells  next  to  the  center  of  the 
trunk  gradually  lose  their  food  products,  and  other  substances 
are  infiltrated  into  their  walls  and  sometimes  into  the  cell 
cavities,  changing  the  color  in  the  majority  of  cases,  and 
increasing  the  density  of  that  part  of  the  tree ;  this  darker 
portion  is  known  as  heartwood.  The  ascent  of  sap  is  greatest 
in  the  spring,  and  practically  ceases,  in  the  trunk  of  the  tree, 
in  winter. 


i6o 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


li^ig.  r303 


The  growth  of  wood  which  a  tree  makes  in  the  spring  is 
usually  characterized  by  thin-walled  cells  and  an  abundance  of 
sap.  In  the  summer  growth  the  cell  walls  are  thicker,  with 
the  cell  cavities  correspondingly  smaller,  and  the  wood  is, 
therefore,  darker.  The  slight  autumn  growth  is  still  more 
dense  and  dark.  The  wood  of  these  three  seasons  taken 
together  is  the  yearly  growth  of  the  tree  —  the  annual  7'ing. 
In  some  trees  the  annual  rings  are  scarcely  perceptible,  while 
in  others  they  are  quite  distinct,  —  a  difference  which  depends 
upon  the  kind  of  tree  as  well  as  upon  the  climate.  For  example, 
in  cross-sections  of  oak  and  chestnut,  the  spring  growth  of  the 

annual  ring  forms  a  light  por- 
ous zone,  which  is,  however, 
somewhat  irregular  and  shades 
gradually  into  the  darker  and 
denser  zone  of  summer  growth. 
In  other  woods,  like  South- 
ern pines,  the  change  between 
spring  and  summer  w^ood  is 
sharply  marked,  and  each  an- 
nual ring  shows  two  clearly 
defined  bands.  In  tropical  re- 
gions, where  the  change  of  sea- 
son is  not  pronounced,  growth 
is  more  regular  and  the  layers 
correspondingly  less  definite.  An  examination  of  the  cross- 
section  of  any  tree  trunk  will  disclose  the  annual  rings,  and 
also  the  difference  in  the  appearance  of  sapwood  and  heart- 
wood.    Fig.  302  shows  a  portion  of  such  a  cross-section. 


253.  The  Structure  of  Wood  is  entirely  cellular,  the  cells 
varying  in  form  and  size,  and  performing  different  functions 
in  the  economy  of  the  tree.  Some  carry  water  from  the  roots 
to  the  leaves,  some  store  away  digested  food,  and  others  give 


TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION. 


6l 


Strength  to  the  structure  and  hold  it  together.  Nearly  the  whole 
volume  of  wood,  over  ninety  per  cent  in  pine,  is  made  up  of 
wood  cells.  Most  of  these  are  long  and  slender,  with  their 
length  coinciding  in  direction  with  that  of  the  trunk  or  branch 
they  have  built  up;  and  in  many  cases  their  tapering  ends 
overlap  and  thus  increase  the  strength  and  toughness  of  the 
stem.  They  are  separated  most  readily  in  the  direction  of 
their  length,  as   is  illustrated  by  the  ease  with  which  wood 


i^ig.  .1 04 


splits  "  with  the  grain."  Medullary  rays  are  thin  plates 
of  cellular  tissue  which  run  from  the  pith  to  the  bark  on 
all  sides,  strengthening  and  binding  together  the  longitudinal 
cells.  To  the  unaided  eye  these  rays  appear  as  simple  lines 
in  a  cross-section  of  wood,  and  as  glistening  plates  in  a 
longitudinal  section.  In  the  oak,  the  medullary  rays  are  con- 
spicuous in  every  cross-section,  while  in  some  of  the  softer 


1 62 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


woods  they  can  hardly  be  traced.  Fig.  303  represents  a  small 
portion  of  an  annual  ring  of  spruce,  magnified  one  hundred 
times.  The  vertical  tubes  are  wood  cells,  and  mr  is  a  medullary 
ray  part  of  which  has  been  removed.  The  circular  depressions 
or  pits  on  the  wood  cells  are  thin  places  in  the  cell  walls ;  they 

Fig.  .IOG 


iia 


i  i!!!i 


iiiili!!-"^^ 


Si  .! 


Mm 


'^.^^illi  ilil  II 


m\ 


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illlii!i}iiliMl?iiv! 


are  very  conspicuous  in  all  woods  of  the  pine  family.  This  figure 
shows  also  the  manner  in  which  the  tapering  ends  of  wood  cells 
overlap.  The  specimen  of  wood  here  given  is  from  one  of 
the  needle-leaved  trees  and  shows  a  tangential  section  on  its 
right  face,  while  Fig.  304  shows  a  microscopic  enlargment  of  a 


TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION.  163 

tangential  section  of  a  broad-leaved  tree,  white  oak,  with  a 
large  medullary  ray,  mr^  and  also  portions  of  smaller  rays. 

Woods  are  hard,  soft,  light,  heavy,  tough,  porous,  and  elas- 
tic, according  to  the  kind  and  size  of  the  cells  and  the  deposits 
in  the  cell  walls.  They  are  also  easy  or  hard  to  work  in  propor- 
tion as  their  cells  are  arranged  in  a  simple  or  a  complicated 
manner ;  white  pine  cuts  more  easily  than  oak  because  it  is 
more  uniform  in  structure. 

254.  Markings  of  wood  depend  more  upon  cell  arrange- 
ment than  upon  difference  of  color.  In  preparing  the  more 
valuable  woods  for  market,  therefore,  the  logs  are  cut  in  such 
a  way  as  to  display  the  cell  arrangement  to  the  best  advantage, 
thus  increasing  the  beauty  of  the  wood  and,  as  a  consequence, 
its  commercial  value.  This  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  302  and  305. 
By  cutting  the  tree  in  a  longitudinal  plane  through  the  center 
the  annual  rings  appear  in  approximately  parallel  straight 
lines  {ii'^  a,  Fig.  302 ),  forming  what  is  known  as  straight  grain. 
If  the  tree  is  not  straight,  the  cutting  plane  crosses  from  one 
annual  layer  to  another,  forming  "  flashes,"/,  as  shown  in  the 
tangential  section  ts.  If  the  medullary  rays  are  well  marked 
and  the  cutting  plane  is  along  a  radius  of  the  log,  the  cut  will 
be  bounded  by  portions  of  the  ray  which  will  extend  over  a 
greater  or  less  area,  forming  "dapples,"  d,  Fig.  305.  The 
appearance  of  the  medullary  rays,  when  thus  exposed,  accounts 
for  the  term  "  silver  rays  "  which  is  sometimes  applied  to  them. 
Another  method  of  sectioning  is  that  of  sawing  the  log  into 
quarters  and  then  into  smaller  pieces,  crossing  by  irig.  3oe 
cuts  which  expose  the  annual  rings,  as  indicated 
by  Fig.  306.  This  method  is  termed  "  quarter- 
sawing."  It  greatly  increases  the  cost  of  the  lumber 
because  of  waste,  but  at  the  same  time  increases  its 
strength  and  enhances  its  beauty,  especially  in  the  case  of 
those  woods  in  which  the  medullary  rays  are  conspicuous. 


164 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


Fig.  30 -r 


Beauty  of  grain  is  often  developed,  also,  by  a  rotary  cut 
which  is  obtained  by  revolving  a  log  against  the  advancing  edge 
of  a  broad  knife  or  cutter.  The  result  of  this  process  is  a  thin, 
broad,  continuous  ribbon  of  wood,  which  may  be  used  as  a 
veneer  upon  the  surface  of  inferior  woods. 

Crooked  or  irregular  grain  weakens  timber  and  makes  it  more 
difficult   to  work,  and  is,   therefore,    undesirable   in   material 
which  is  to  be  used  in  the  framing  of  structures ;  but  it  has  its 
value  in  the  realm  of  ornamentation.     Every  bend  or  twist  in 
the  growing  tree  disturbs   the  regularity  of  its 
structure  and  enhances  the  beauty  of  the  boards 
which   may   sometime    be    cut  from  its  trunk. 
When,  therefore,  a  wood  is  suitable  for  decora- 
tive purposes,  its  value  is  increased  rather  than 
diminished  by  such  irregularities  of  grain.    Some 
of  the  most  common  markings  are  knots  caused 
by  undeveloped  buds  which  are  covered  over 
by  the  later  growth  of  the  tree.     Fig.  307  shows 
a  "  dead  "  knot  formed  by  the  breaking  away 
of  a  branch.     The  branch  was  a  living  one  for 
four  years,  as  is  shown  by   the  fact  that  four 
annual  rings  are  united  with  it.     There  is  no 
union  with  later  rings,  and  still  later  ones  would 
cover  the  knot  entirely. 
In  woods  such  as  mahogany,  satinwood,  sycamore,  and  ash, 
figures  resembling  the  ripple  marks  of  the  sea  on  fine  sand,  are 
due  to  a  serpentine  form  of  the  grain,  the  fibers  being  wavy  in 
planes  perpendicular  to  that  on  which  the  ripple  is  observed, 
and  those  parts  of  the  wood  which  receive  the  light  being  the 
brightest. 

Markings  in  wood  are  of  value  in  cases  where  a  handsome 
finish  is  required,  as  in  furniture  and  cabinetwork,  and  in  the 
inside  decoration  of  buildings.  The  trees  that  yield  such 
material  are   those  which   have   plenty  of   room   for   growth. 


TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION.  l6$ 

which  are  exposed  to  winds  that  bend  and  twist,  and  which 
have  ample  light  and  space  for  the  development  of  branches. 
Lumber  sawed  from  such  trees  will  usually  contain  curls, 
knots,  and  wavy  grains  of  great  beauty. 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  fact  that,  for 
structural  purposes,  straight  grain  and  freedom  from  knots 
are  desirable.  These  qualities  are  most  readily  found  in 
trees  growing  under  forest  conditions ;  that  is,  among  other 
trees,  where  the  effort  of  the  growing  tree  to  reach  the  light, 
together  with  a  process  of  "  natural  pruning  "  which  prevents 
branches  from  growing,  results  in  the  production  of  long, 
straight  stems. 

255.  The  Adaptability  of  the  various  woods  depends  on  a 
variety  of  conditions.  The  carpenter  and  builder,  who  requires 
a  large  quantity  of  material  with  the  least  possible  outlay  of 
labor  upon  it,  uses  those  kinds  that  are  abundant  and  cheap, 
that  are  to  be  had  in  timbers  of  large  dimensions,  that  are  light 
to  ship,  easy  to  work,  fairly  stiff,  and  insect  proof.  They  need 
not  be  handsome,  hard,  tough,  or  very  strong,  and  shrinkage 
after  the  wood  is  in  place  is  no  serious  objection.  In  order 
that  the  material  may  be  easily  worked,  it  is  necessary  that  it 
be  soft  and  reasonably  free  from  curls  and  knots.  The  furniture 
maker  uses  smaller  quantities  of  material,  but  he  expects  to  put 
a  large  amount  of  labor  upon  it,  and  he  requires  a  wood  that 
combines  strength,  and  sometimes  toughness,  with  beauty  and 
hardness, — one  that  takes  a  good  polish,  that  is  not  easily 
indented,  and  that  will  keep  firm  joints.  For  some  purposes, 
it  is  required  that  wood  shall  neither  warp  nor  shrink  when 
in  place ;  it  need  not  be  very  light,  or  soft,  or  insect  proof, 
or  very  cheap,  or  abundant  in  any  one  kind,  or  furnish  pieces  of 
large  dimensions.  The  wagon  maker  seeks  the  qualities  of 
toughness,  strength,  and  hardness  combined ;  the  carriage 
builder,  cooper,  and  shingle  maker   require  straight-grained, 


1 66  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

easy-splitting  woods,  with  the  long  fiber  which  precludes 
knots;  the  essentials  for  telegraph  poles  are  durability,  elas- 
ticity, and  the  right  proportion  of  length  to  diameter;  and 
good  railroad  ties  must  be  hard,  must  hold  spikes  firmly,  and 
must  resist  the  action  of  the  weather. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  TYPICAL  TIMBER- 
YIELDING  TREES. 

256.  Classification  of  Trees.  —  There  are  in  the  United 
States  nearly  four  hundred  distinct  species  of  trees,  but  the 
greater  part  of  all  the  wood  used  in  construction  is  taken 
from  a  comparatively  small  number. 

Trees  are  divided  into  two  general  classes  known  as  exo- 
gens  and  endoge?is.    The  former  includes  all  trees  the  trunks  of 
which  are  built  up  by  rings  or  layers,  —  the  growth,  therefore, 
being  upon  the  outside.     Endogenous  trees  in- 
^^"  crease  from  within,  the  new  wood-strands  being 

interspersed  among  the  old,  and  causing  cross- 
surfaces  to  appear  dotted,  as  illustrated  by 
Fig.  308,  which  represents  a  cross-section  of  the 
trunk  of  a  palm  tree.  Old  endogenous  stems 
have  the  older  and  harder  wood  near  the  sur- 
face and  the  younger  and  softer  toward  the  center.  Examples 
of  this  class  are  found  in  palms,  yuccas,  and  bamboos,  and 
the  character  of  their  growth  is  well  illustrated  in  the  common 
cornstalk. 

257.  The  Exogens  are  the  timber-yielding  trees,  and  since 
they  furnish  the  woods  useful  in  construction,  they  are  the 
ones  of  special  interest  to  the  woodworker.  They  are  sub- 
divided into  broad-leaved  trees  and  needle-leaved  trees,  or 
conifers.    Most  of  the  broad-leaved  trees  are  deciduous  ;   that 


TIMBER    AND    ITS    PREPARATION. 


167 


is,  they  shed  their  foliage  in  the  autumn  of  each  year.     The 
needle-leaved  trees  are,  almost  without  exception,  evergreen. 


Fig.  30© 


^?*-  "i.   t 


.M/;<-^ 


?'ijf,^ff-ii^^:^'  ^^'■■\ 


258.  Effect  of  Environment  on  the  growth  of  trees  is  such 
as  greatly  influences  their  timber  value.  Trees  which  grow  in 
the  open,  quite  apart  from  other  trees,  acquire  a  shapeliness 


1 68 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


P"ig.  rjK) 


and  beauty  which  is  never  equaled  by  those  which  grow  in 
the  thicket  or  forest,  but  the  timber,  vakie  of  such  trees  is 
decreased  by  the  presence  of  Umbs,  which  branch  from  all 
sides  of  the  stem,  leaving  but  a  short  length  of  clean  trunk 
from  which  clear  lumber  can  be  made,  Fig.  309.  A  forest 
tree,  on  the  other  hand,  finds  light  only  at  the  top.  The 
shade  of  the  trees,  which  crowd  it  on  every  side,  prevents  it 
from  putting  out  branches  until  it  finds  a  level  where  it  can 
reach  out  into  or  over  their  tops.  A  forest 
has  in  fact  two  floors,  the  first  being  the 
ground  out  of  which  the  trunks  of  the  trees 
spring,  and  the  second,  the  floor  of  ioliage 
where  the  tops  of  the  trees  branch,  and 
crowd  each  other  for  room  and  light,  and 
above  which  the  occasional  tree  of  unusual 
vigor  rises  and  waves  its  lofty  boughs. 
Between  these  two  floors,  a  distance  of 
from  forty  to  more  than  eighty  feet,  extend 
the  straight,  limbless  trunks  of  the  trees 
which,  like  high  columns,  support  the  floor 
of  foliage  above.  These  straight,  smooth 
trunks  of  the  forest  trees  constitute  the 
chief  source  of  commercial  timber.  Fig.  310 
shows  a  tree  of  forest  growth  as  exposed  to 
view  by  the  removal  of  neighboring  trees. 


259.  Broad-Leaved  Woods  vary  greatly 
in  structure  and,  therefore,  differ  widely  in 
quality  and  use.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  they  usually 
contain  no  resins  and  that  their  density,  or  weight,  is  great; 
they  are  usually  hard  and  have  a  complex  and  irregular  structure, 
and  for  these  reasons  are  difficult  to  work  ;  and  they  are  likely 
to  be  of  irregular  growth  and  shape,  having  many  branches, 
and,  therefore,  not  productive  of  large  logs  or  blocks  which 


TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION.  169 

are  free  from  knots.  Some  nail  with  difificulty  and  are  in 
other  ways  unsuitable  for  use  in  general  construction,  but  are 
better  adapted  to  cabinetwork,  the  making  of  furniture  and 
implements,  and  any  other  work  which  requires  beauty  of 
finish. 

Ash,  basswood,  beech,  birch,  buckeye,  butternut,  catalpa. 
cherry,  chestnut,  elm,  gum,  hackberry,  hickory,  holly,  locust, 
maple,  mulberry,  sassafras,  sycamore,  tulipwood,  and  walnut 
are  the  principal  American  woods  of  the  broad-leaved  divi- 
sion. Of  these  the  oak,  ash,  maple,  beech,  walnut,  and  pop- 
lar probably  furnish  the  greater  part  of  the  commercial  timber 
which  comes  from  trees  of  this  class.  The  general  appearance 
of  an  oak,  which  may  be  accepted  as  a  typical  hard-timber 
tree,  is  shown  by  Fig.  309. 

260.  Oak  {Qiiercus).  —  The  oaks,  of  which  there  are  in  all 
more  than  forty  varieties,  produce  woods  which  are  exceed- 
ingly variable,  but  they  are  usually  heavy,  hard,  tough,  porous, 
very  strong,  and  of  coarse  texture,  the  sapwood  whitish,  the 
heartwood  ranging  in  color  from  a  light  to  a  reddish  brown. 
There  are  three  well-marked  kinds,  —  white,  red,  and  live  oak. 
These  are  kept  distinct  in  the  market,  the  white  and  the  red 
oak  being  the  most  common. 

261.  White  Oak  {Quercus  alba  Linn.). — This  variety  of 
oak  is  found  widely  distributed  over  the  north-central  and  the 
eastern  portions  of  the  United  States.  It  grows  from  seventy- 
five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height  and  from  three  to  six  feet 
in  diameter.  The  bark  has  a  grayish  white  color  from  which 
the  variety  takes  its  name.  The  annual  layers  are  well  marked 
and  the  medullary  rays  are  broad  and  prominent.  The  wood 
is  hard  and  liable  to  check  unless  carefully  seasoned.  It  is 
durable  in  contact  with  the  soil  and  is  capable  of  a  high 
polish.  It  is  used  in  shipbuilding,  cooperage,  cabinetmaking, 
and  in  the  framework  of  buildings,  as  well  as  for  furniture, 


I/O 


BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 


agricultural  implements,  carriages,  railway  ties,  and  fuel.  The 
weight  of  the  seasoned  wood  is  fifty  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 
It  exists  in  large  quantities  and  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
woods  in  general  use. 

262.  Red  Oak  \Que?'cus  rubra  Linn.)  is  found  in  Nebraska 
and  Kansas,  and  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  ranges  from 
Nova  Scotia  to  Georgia,  reaching  its  best  development  in 
Massachusetts.  It  is  often  brittle,  and  is  usually  of  coarser  tex- 
ture than  white  oak,  being  more  porous,  less  durable,  and  even 


more  difficult  to  season.  The  tree  grows  to  be  from  ninety  to 
one  hundred  feet  in  height,  and  from  three  to  six  feet  in 
diameter,  and  has  brownish  gray  bark,  which  is  smooth  on  the 
branches.  The  heartwood  is  light  brown  or  red,  the  sapwood 
darker,  the  medullary  rays  few  and  broad.  For  carpentry  and 
for  furniture  making  it  brings  about  the  same  price  with  white 
oak.  It  is  used  for  clapboards,  barrels,  interior  finish,  chairs, 
and  other  work  of  secondary  importance.  Its  weight  is  forty- 
five  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  The  distribution  of  the  oaks  is 
shown  by  Fig.  311. 


TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION,  I/I 

263.  Maple  {Ace?')  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  stiff,  tough, 
of  fine  texture,  and  often  wavy-grained.  It  is  not  durable  in 
the  ground  or  under  exposure  to  the  weather.  Its  color  is  a 
creamy  white  with  shades  of  light  brown  in  the  heartwood.  It 
shrinks  moderately,  seasons,  works,  and  stands  well,  wears 
smooth,  and  takes  a  fine  polish.  It  is  used  for  ceiHng,  floor- 
ing, paneling,  for  stairways  and  other  finishing  work  in  houses, 
for  ship  and  car  construction,  and  for  furniture.  It  is  a  good 
material  for  shoe  lasts,  shoe  pegs,  school  apparatus,  wood  type, 
tool  handles,  wood  carving,  turnery,  scroll  work,  and  the 
mechanism  of  pianos.  The  principal  varieties  are  the  sugar 
maple  and  the  silver  or  white  maple. 

264.  Sugar  Maple  {Acer  Sac charu7?i  Marsh.).  —  This  tree 
yields  a  sap  which  is  made  into  sugar,  from  which  fact  it  takes 
its  name,  though  it  has  various  local  names,  as  hard  maple, 
black  maple,  sugar  tree,  and  rock  maple.  It  is  found  princi- 
pally in  the  southern  part  of  Canada  and  the  northern  part  of 
the  United  States,  though  its  range  extends  as  far  south  as 
Florida  and  Texas.  The  tree  grows  from  seventy  to  one 
hundred  feet  in  height  and  from  one  and  one-half  to  four  feet 
in  diameter.  It  is  the  hardest  variety  of  maple  known  and  its 
wood  is  superior  in  quality. 

Dry  maple  weighs  forty- three  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  Bird's- 
eye,  blister,  and  sometimes  curly  effects  are  found  in  this 
wood. 

265.  Silver  or  White  Maple  {Acer  dasycarpum  Ehr.), 
also  frequently  called  soft  maple,  and  locally  swamp  maple, 
water  maple,  and  river  maple,  is  found  in  a  region  extending 
from  New  Brunswick  to  Florida,  and  westward  intermittently 
to  Dakota  and  the  Indian  Territory.  Its  general  characteris- 
tics are  similar  to  those  of  the  sugar  maple,  though  it  is  softer, 
its  sapwood  somewhat  lighter  in  color,  and  its  weight  less.  Its 
grade  is  somewhat  inferior  to  that  of  sugar  maple  and  its  use 


1/2 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


extends  to  cheaper  kinds  of  work.     White  maple  weighs  when 
seasoned  thirty-two  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

266.  Black  Walnut  {Juglans  nigra  Linn.).  —  Of  the  genus 
Juglans  there  are  two  species,  known  as  black  walnut  and 
white  walnut,  or  butternut,  though  the  former  is  characterized 
popularly  by  the  name  walnut.  Black  walnut  is  found  in 
Ontario  and  Florida,  on  the  Allegheny  Mountains,  and  west- 
ward   intermittently    to    Nebraska    and    Texas,    and    also    in 


Walnuts 


California.  Its  distribution  is  well  shown  by  Fig.  312.  The 
tree  reaches  a  height  of  from  ninety  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  from  three  to  eight  feet, 
has  an  almost  black  bark,  and  makes  a  fine  appearance, 
except  in  some  portions  of  the  West,  where  it  is  small 
and  low  and  much-branched.  It  is  now  everywhere  scarce 
because  of  the  great  demand.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard, 
strong,  rather  coarse-grained,  liable  to  check  if  not  carefully 
seasoned,  easily  worked,  and  is  durable  in  contact  with  the 
soil.    Its  color  is  a  chocolate  brown  with  lightish  sapwood. 


TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION.  1/3 

The  annual  rings  are  obscure,  the  medullary  rays  numerous  but 
thin  and  not  conspicuous.  Until  lately,  when  oak  has  become 
its  competitor,  walnut  has  been  more  generally  used  for  gun- 
stocks,  for  all  kinds  of  furniture,  and  for  the  interior  finish  of 
buildings  than  any  other  North  American  tree.  The  weight  of 
the  seasoned  wood  is  thirty-eight  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

267.  Yellow  Poplar  {Liriodendroii  Tulipifera  Linn.).  — 
This  wood  is  also  commonly  called  tulip  tree  and  whitewood. 
It  is  found  in  the  region  extending  from  New  England  to  Florida, 
and  westward  intermittently  to  Michigan  and  Mississippi.  The 
tree  grows  to  be  from  sixty  to  eighty  feet  in  height  and  two 
feet  or  more  in  diameter,  the  bark  being  smooth  and  of  a  gray 
color,  and  the  sapwood  lighter.  It  is  usually  light,  soft,  stiff 
but  not  strong,  and  of  fine  texture,  with  the  annual  rings  very 
obscure  and  the  medullary  rays  thin  and  inconspicuous.  The 
wood  shrinks  considerably  when  drying,  but  seasons  without 
injury,  does  not  split  in  nailing,  and  works  under  a  tool  excep- 
tionally well.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  useful  of  the 
broad-leaved  trees  of  the  United  States.  It  is  used  for  siding 
and  paneling,  for  finishing  lumber  in  the  building  of  houses, 
cars,  and  ships,  for  the  side  boards  and  panels  of  wagons  and 
carriages,  and  for  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  implements, 
machinery,  wooden  pumps,  wooden  ware,  boxes,  shelving,  and 
drawers.  Large  quantities  of  the  wood  are  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paper  pulp.  The  weight  of  the  seasoned  wood  is 
twenty-six  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

268.  Beech  {Fagus  ferruginea  Ait.).  —  This  wood  has  only 
one  representative  on  the  American  continent,  though  in  dif- 
ferent localities  it  is  called  red  beech,  white  beech,  and  ridge 
beech.  It  is  found  in  the  region  extending  from  Nova  Scotia 
to  Florida,  and  westward  intermittently  to  Wisconsin  and  Texas. 
The  tree  grows  to  be  from  sixty  to  eighty  feet  in  height  and 


174  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

from  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter,  but  there  is  not  an  abundant 
supply  of  the  wood  nor  can  it  be  obtained  in  pieces  of  very 
large  dimensions.  Ironwood,  sometimes  called  blue  beech,  is 
similar  to  it  and  is  sometimes  confounded  with  it.  The  heart- 
wood  is  of  a  reddish  color  with  variable  shades,  and  the  sap- 
wood  is  nearly  white.  The  grain  is  close,  the  annual  rings 
obscure,  and  the  medullary  rays  conspicuous.  The  wood  is 
heavy,  hard,  strong,  works  well,  and  takes  a  good  polish.  It  is 
not  durable  in  the  ground,  is  liable  to  the  attacks  of  boring 
insects,  and  shrinks  and  checks  in  drying.  It  is  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  lasts,  handles,  and  furniture.  The  variety  com- 
mon in  European  countries  {sylvaticd)  is  also  used  in  wood 
carving,  carpentry,  millwork,  and  wagon  making.  The  weight 
of  the  seasoned  wood  is  forty-two  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

269.  Ash  {Fraxinus). — This  wood  occupies  a  place  in  com- 
merce next  in  importance  to  that  of  oak.  In  fact,  ash  and  oak 
resemble  each  other  in  that  there  are  bands  of  porous  spring 
wood  in  both,  though  the  medullary  rays  of  ash  are  thinner 
and  are  often  hardly  discernible.  Ash  is  coarser  and  less  at- 
tractive, but  easier  to  work  than  oak.  There  are,  in  the  United 
States,  about  fifteen  species  of  this  genus.  Lumbermen,  how- 
ever, separate  them  into  white  and  black  ash. 

270.  White  Ash  {Fraximis  Americana  Linn.)  grows  in  the 
region  between  Nova  Scotia  and  Florida,  and  westward  inter- 
mittently to  Minnesota  and  Texas.  The  tree  rises  to  a  height 
of  from  forty-five  to  ninety  feet  and  is  three  or  four  feet  in 
diameter.  It  usually  has  gray  or  dark  brown,  furrowed  bark,  and 
smooth  leaves,  which  are  white  on  the  under  side.  The  heart- 
wood  is  a  mottled,  reddish  brown,  and  the  sapwood  either  white 
or  very  light. 

The  wood  is  straight-grained,  heavy,  hard,  strong,  stiff,  and 
tough,  but  becomes  brittle  with  age  ;  it  is  not  durable  in  contact 
with  the  soil,  shrinks  moderately,  seasons  with  little  injury, 


TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION. 


75 


takes  a  good  polish,  and  is  easily  worked.  In  carpentry  it  is 
used  for  finishing  lumber,  for  stairways,  and  for  panels.  Barrels, 
baskets,  cars,  tool  handles,  and  hoops  are  made  from  it,  as  well 
as  wagons,  carriages,  farm  implements,  machinery,  and  all  kinds 
of  furniture.  This  wood  grows  in  abundance  and  is  one  of  the 
most  useful  of  the  broad-leaved  varieties.  The  weight  of  the 
seasoned  wood  is  thirty-nine  pounds  per  cubic  foot.    The  general 


ITis:.  31R 


WhiteAsh 
Big  Tree 
Redwood 


characteristics  of  the  other  varieties  of  this  genus  are  very  similar 
to  those  of  white  ash.  The  distribution  of  this  wood  is  shown 
by  Fig.  313. 

271.  Needle-Leaved  Woods  are  more  uniform  in  their  gen- 
eral characteristics  than  the  broad-leaved  varieties.  These 
characteristics  are  lightness,  regularity  of  structure,  obscurity 
of  the  medullary  rays,  presence  of  resins,  absence  of  pores  in 
sections,  and  the  ease  with  which  the  wood  is  worked.  Trees 
of  this  class  may  commonly  be  identified  by  the  cones,  by  the 


176  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

needle-like  leaves,  and  by  the  fact  that  they  are  evergreen, 
although  there  are  a  few  exceptions  to  this  characterization. 
In  common  speech,  needle-leaved  tree,  soft  wood,  conifer,  and 
evergreen  are  used  as  synonymous  terms.  These  trees  afford 
large,  straight  pieces  of  timber  and,  consequently,  are  suitable 
for  carpentry  and  the  frames  of  buildings,  and  in  the  United 
States  they  furnish  the  bulk  of  lumber  for  purposes  of  con- 
struction. The  principal  varieties  are  cedar,  cypress,  fir,  hem- 
lock, tamarack,  pine,  redwood,  spruce,  and  yew.  The  general 
appearance  of  a  needle-leaved  tree  of  forest  growth  is  shown 
by  Fig.  310. 

272.  Pine  {Finus)  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  the 
needle-leaved  family.  There  are  several  varieties,  all  of  which 
may  be  classed  as  either  hard  pine  or  soft  pine.  The  four 
varieties  —  white  pine,  long-leaved  pine,  short-leaved  pine,  and 
loblolly  pine — are  important  in  the  production  of  lumber  for 
building  purposes.  Of  these,  white  pine  is  a  soft  wood,  while 
the  other  three  are  hard  woods.  Pines  are  characterized  by 
long,  smooth,  straight,  and  solid  trunks. 

273.  White  Pine  {Fimis  Strobus  Linn.)  is  found  in  the 
north-central  and  northeastern  United  States,  advancing  north- 
ward into  Canada,  southward  into  Illinois,  and  along  the  Alle- 
ghenies  into  Georgia.  This  species,  though  commonly  called 
white  pine,  is  known  in  different  localities  as  Weymouth  pine, 
soft  pine,  northern  pine,  spruce  pine,  and  pumpkin  pine.  It 
is  distinctively  a  northern  tree,  though  it  is  found  in  some 
portions  of  the  South.  It  grows  to  be  from  seventy-five  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  and  from  three  to  six  feet 
in  diameter,  and  even  larger.  The  wood  is  very  soft,  light, 
not  strong,  very  close,  straight-grained,  exceedingly  easy  to 
work,  and  susceptible  of  a  beautiful  polish.  The  resin  pas- 
sages are  small  and  not  numerous  or  conspicuous ;   the  annual 


TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION.  I// 

rings  are  obscure,  and  the  medullary  rays  thin  and  numerous. 
Its  color  is  a  very  light  brown,  often  tinged  with  red,  and  the 
sapwood  is  nearly  white.  It  seasons  well,  shrinks  less  than 
other  pines  when  drying,  and  is  fairly  durable.  It  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  matches,  wooden  ware,  and  shingles,  in 
cabinetmaking,  for  interior  finish,  and  in  carpentry,  and  is  the 
most  valuable  building  material  of  the  northern  states.  It  has 
existed  in  extensive  forests,  but  the  supply  is  now  rapidly 
diminishing  and  the  yellow  pines  are  to  some  extent  taking  its 
place.  The  weight  of  the  seasoned  white  pine  is  twenty-four 
pounds  per  cubic  foot.    Its  distribution  is  shown  by  Fig.  314. 

274.  Long-Leaved  Pine  {Pimis  palustris  Mill.)  is  also 
known  as  hard  pine  and  yellow  pine,  and  in  different  local- 
ities has  many  other  names.  It  is  a  native  of  the  southern 
United  States,  growing  freely  in  the  south-Atlantic  and  Gulf 
states  and  intermittently  from  Virginia  to  Alabama,  and  is  the 
principal  lumber  tree  of  the  Southeast.  It  grows  to  be  from 
fifty  to  ninety  feet  in  height  and  from  one  to  three  feet  in 
diameter.    Its  distribution  is  shown  by  Fig.  314. 

The  annual  rings  are  easily  detected,  the  medullary  rays  are 
numerous  and  conspicuous,  and  the  color  is  light  red  or  orange, 
with  the  sapwood  thin  and  nearly  white.  The  wood  is  heavy, 
very  hard,  very  strong,  tough,  coarse-grained,  and  durable, 
and  is  used  for  fencing,  railway  ties,  shipbuilding,  interior  and 
exterior  finishing,  and  for  all  sorts  of  heavy  construction.  In 
the  United  States  almost  the  entire  product  of  turpentine, 
pitch,  tar,  and  resin  comes  from  this  species.  Commercially 
it  is  considered  the  most  valuable  of  the  southern  pines. 
The  weight  of  the  seasoned  wood  is  thirty-eight  pounds  per 
cubic  foot. 

275.  Short-Leaved  Pine  {Pinus  echinata  Mill.)  is  called 
yellow  pine  and  hard  pine,  and  has  many  other  local  names. 


178 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


It  is  found  in  the  region  from  Connecticut  westward  to  Kan- 
sas and  Texas.  The  tree  grows  from  fifty  to  sixty  feet  in 
height  and  from  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter,  and  is  erect  and 
of  fine  appearance.  Its  general  characteristics  are  much  like 
those  of  the  long-leaved  pine,  except  that  it  is  lighter  and  not  so 
strong,  and  its  uses,  also,  are  practically  the  same.  The  weight 
of  the  seasoned  wood  is  thirty-two  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 


276.    Loblolly  Pine  {Pinus  Taeda  Linn.). — This  tree  grows 
in  nearly  the  same  region  as  the  long-leaved  pine  and  appears 


TTig.  314 


WfiitePine 

LoyigleaforYellowPine 
Bull  orYellowPine 


naturally  on  land  which  has  been  abandoned,  preferably 
that  which  has  been  occupied  by  a  forest.  This  trait  gives  it 
the  name  of  old-field  pine.  The  tree  grows  to  be  from  fifty 
to  one  hundred  feet  in  height  and  from  two  to  four  feet  in 
diameter.  In  color,  grain,  structural  qualities  of  wood,  and 
representative  uses  it  is  very  similar  to  the  long-leaved  pine, 


TIMBEJ^    AND    ITS    PREPARATION.  1/9 

though  it  is  not  so  durable  in  the  natural  state.  At  present 
one  of  its  uses  is  in  making  bridge  timbers  and  railroad  cross- 
ties.  In  such  service,  by  the  application  of  some  preservative, 
it  is  often  made  to  take  the  place  of  the  more  durable  long- 
leaved  pine.  The  weight  of  the  seasoned  wood  is  thirty- three 
pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

277.  Bull  Pine  {Piniis  pofiderosa  Douglas).  —  This  species 
of  pine  is  distinct  from  the  other  yellow  pines  in  that  it  is  a 
product  of  the  western  part  of  the  United  States,  being  found 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains  westward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Its  distribution  is  shown  by  ¥\g.  314.  It  is  the  largest  species 
of  pine  known,  growing  to  be  from  one  hundred  to  three  hun- 
dred feet  in  height  and  from  six  to  eight  feet  in  diameter. 
The  bark  is  thick  and  deeply  furrowed.  The  wood  varies 
greatly  in  quality  and  value,  but  in  general  it  is  heavy,  hard, 
strong,  brittle,  and  rather,  fine-grained.  The  medullary  rays 
are  numerous  but  rather  obscure ;  the  proportion  of  sap- 
wood  to  heartwood  is  large,  the  former  being  almost  white  in 
color  and  the  latter  a  light  red.  Since  this  species  contains 
much  sapwood,  it  is  not  durable,  but  is  used  in  exposed  places 
and  in  contact  with  the  soil  by  treating  it  with  a  preservative. 
It  is  manufactured  into  lumber  and  is  also  used  for  railway 
ties  and  fuel.  Its  weight  when  seasoned  is  twenty-nine  pounds 
per  cubic  foot. 

278.  The  Spruces  {Ficea)  are  found  in  abundance  in  the 
United  States,  and  though  there  are  several  varieties,  they  are 
all  divided  commercially  into  two  classes,  —  white  spruce  and 
black  spruce.  Spruce  resembles  white  pine  in  many  of  its 
characteristics  and  uses ;  in  fact,  the  resemblance  is  so  great 
that  there  is  much  confusion  of  names  in  different  localities. 
It  is  often  very  hard  to  distinguish  between  black  spruce  and 
white  spruce. 


l80  BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 

279.  Black  Spruce  {Picea  nigra  Link;  Picea  Mariana 
Mill.). — This  tree  grows  in  a  region  between  Pennsylvania  and 
Minnesota,  and  along  the  Allegheny  Mountains  to  North  Caro- 
lina, but  reaches  its  best  development  in  Canada.  It  grows 
to  a  height  of  from  forty  to  eighty  feet,  and  a  diameter  of 
from  one  to  two  feet,  usually  having  a  straight,  conical-shaped 
trunk  and  dark  foliage.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  not  strong, 
straight-grained,  and  satiny.  It  contains  considerable  resin ; 
the  medullary  rays  are  few  but  conspicuous.  The  heartwood 
has  a  light  red  color  which  is  sometimes  nearly  white,  the 
sapwood  being  still  whiter.  It  is  used  in  shipbuilding,  and  for 
piles,  posts,  and  railway  ties.  In  fact,  in  most  of  its  uses  it  is  a 
somewhat  inferior  substitute  for  white  pine.  The  weight  of 
the  seasoned  wood  is  twenty-eight  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

280.  White  Spruce  {Picea  alba  Link ;  Picea  Canadensis 
Mill.)  grows  in  high  latitudes  and  is  found  in  northern  United 
States,  Canada,  Labrador,  and  Alaska.  Its  general  character- 
istics and  use  are  much  the  same  as  those  of  the  black  spruce, 
except  that  the  trees  grow  a  little  higher  and  the  color  of  the 
wood  and  foliage  is  somewhat  lighter. 

281.  Hemlock  {Tsuga),  of  which  there  are  two  principal 
species,  is  light,  soft,  stiff,  brittle,  coarse-grained,  and  inclined 
to  splinter,  and  the  limits  of  sapwood  and  heartwood  are  not 
well  defined.  The  wood  has  a  reddish  gray  color,  is  free  from 
resin  ducts,  is  moderately  durable,  shrinks  and  warps  consider- 
ably, wears  rough,  and  retains  nails  firmly.  The  bark,  which 
is  red  on  the  outside,  is  used  for  tanning  leather. 

282.  Eastern  Hemlock  (Tsuga  Canadensis  Carr.)  is  found 
in  eastern  arid  central  Canada,  where  it  has  its  best  develop- 
ment, and  extends  southward  to  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee. 
It  is  a  handsome  tree  with  a  straight  trunk,  and  grows  to  be 
eighty  or  more  feet  in  height  and  two  or  three  feet  in  diameter. 


TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION.  l8l 

It  is  manufactured  into  coarse  lumber  and  is  used  in  the 
frames  of  buildings,  for  outside  finish,  and  for  railway  ties. 
This  species  furnishes  nearly  all  of  the  hemlock  for  the  eastern 
market.  The  weight  of  the  seasoned  wood  is  twenty-six  pounds 
per  cubic  foot. 

283.  Western  Hemlock  {Tsuga  Mertcnsiana  Carr.),  grow- 
ing in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and 
also  in  Alaska,  is  similar  to  eastern  hemlock  but  appears  in 
larger  trees,  is  of  a  better  quality,  and  is  heavier,  its  weight 
being  about  thirty  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  When  treated  to 
prevent  decay,  it  is  much  used  in  exposed  situations  and  in 
contact  with  the  soil,  especially  for  railway  ties. 

284.  Bald  Cypress  {Taxodium  distichum  Rich.)  is  found 
in  Maryland,  in  the  south- Atlantic  and  Gulf  states,  through 
Florida  to  Texas,  and  in  the  Mississippi  valley  from  southern 
Illinois  to  the  Gulf.  It  usually  grows  in  swamps  and  wet 
places,  sometimes  forming  large  forests.  The  wood  is  light, 
soft,  close,  straight-grained,  not  strong,  resinous,  very  easily 
worked,  and  very  durable  when  in  contact  with  the  soil  or  with 
water ;  the  medullary  rays  are  numerous  but  very  obscure.  It 
has  a  color  between  light  and  dark  brown  with  nearly  white  sap- 
wood.  It  is  manufactured  into  shingles,  and  is  used  for  the  con- 
struction of  buildings  and  for  railway  ties.  Its  peculiar  durability 
in  contact  with  water  fits  it  for  use  also  in  the  manufacture  of 
tanks,  casks,  and  barrels.  This  wood  is  a  very  important  one  ;  it 
is  commercially  divided  into  white  and  black  cypress  because  of 
differences  in  hardness  due  to  age  and  environment.  The  weight 
of  the  seasoned  wood  is  twenty-nine  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

285.  The  Common  Redwood  {Sequoia  sempendrens  Endl.), 
found  in  the  central  and  northern  coast  region  of  California, 
grows  to  be  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  feet  in  height, 
and  from  six  to  eight,  and  sometimes  to  twenty,  feet  in  diameter. 


152  BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 

When  young  it  is  a  graceful  tree  with  straight  and  tapering 
trunk  and  drooping  branches,  the  lower  ones  sweeping  the 
ground.  In  old  age  the  trunk  rises  to  a  great  height  bare  of 
boughs,  and  the  branches  on  the  upper  part  are  short  and  irreg- 
ular. The  wood  resembles  that  of  cedar  in  appearance,  the 
color  being  a  clear,  light  red,  with  the  sapwood  almost  white, 
the  proportion  of  sapwood  to  heartwood  being  small.  It  is 
light,  soft,  not  strong,  very  brittle,  rather  coarse-grained, 
susceptible  of  polish,  easily  worked,  and  very  durable  in  con- 
tact with  the  soil.  The  medullary  rays  are  numerous  but  very 
obscure.  It  yields  the  principal  lumber  of  the  Pacific  coast  and 
is  used  for  shingles,  fence  posts,  telegraph  poles,  railway  ties,  cof- 
fins, flumes,  tanks  for  water  and  for  tanning  purposes,  and  water 
pipes  for  irrigation.  When  its  grain  is  curled  it  forms  a  good 
material  for  interior  decoration  and  cabinet  work.  The  weight 
of  the  seasoned  wood  is  twenty-six  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

286.  The  Big-Tree  Variety  of  Redwood  {Sequoia  gigantea 
Torr.)  is  the  largest  tree  of  the  American  forest.  It  grows 
in  practically  the  same  locality  as  the  common  redwood,  but 
appears  chiefly  in  isolated  groups,  and  there  are  probably  only 
a  few  hundred  individual  trees  in  existence.  Some  specimens 
have  been  measured  that  were  three  hundred  and  twenty  feet 
in  height  and  thirty-five  feet  in  diameter,  with  bark  about 
two  feet  thick.  The  wood  resembles  that  of  the  common 
redwood  except  that  it  is  more  brittle.  The  distribution  of  the 
redwoods  is  shown  by  Fig.  313. 

LOGGING. 

287.  "Felling  Timber^  should  always,  if  possible,  be 
practiced  at  the  period  of  maturity ;  if  earlier,  the  wood  will 
not  have  acquired  its  greatest  strength  and  density,  and  will 

1  Quotation  marks  refer  to  Thurston's  "  Materials  of  Engineering." 


TIMBER    AND    ITS    PREPARATION.  1 83 

contain  too  great  a  proportion  of  sapwood ;  if  later,  the  wood 
will  have  become  weakened  by  incipient  decay."  The  age  at 
which  maturity  is  reached  varies  with  different  trees.  The 
oak  is  said  to  come  to  maturity  when  about  one  hundred  years 
old,  and  it  should  not  be  felled  at  less  than  sixty.  '*  Pine 
timber  should  be  cut  at  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  years  of 
age,  and  ash  and  elm  at  fifty  to  one  hundred."  In  practice, 
however,  trees  are  often  cut  before  their  age  of  maturity,  it 
being  not  uncommon,  in  dealing  with  a  forest  growth,  either  to 
clear  the  ground  of  all  trees,  whether  large  or  small,  or  to  cull 
from  time  to  time  all  trees  which  are  of  sufficient  size  to  be 
marketable.  As  opposed  to  this  custom,  a  modern  theory  of 
forestry  favors  a  division  of  the  forest  tract  into  many  parts, 
certain  of  which  may  be  cut  each  year,  the  plan  being  such 
that  when  the  last  subdivision  has  been  cut,  sufficient  time 
will  have  elapsed  to  permit  the  first  to  become  completely 
reforested,  and,  therefore,  ready  to  give  up  its  second  growth. 
An  alternative  plan,  applying  especially  to  forests  of  mixed 
growth,  provides  for  the  systematic  removal  of  mature  trees  only, 
the  work  being  done  under  careful  supervision.  By  either  of 
these  methods  the  forest,  like  other  products  of  the  soil,  may 
be  made  to  yield  a  certain  revenue  each  year.  The  complete 
development  of  any  such  plan  necessarily  involves  a  long 
series  of  years,  and  as  yet,  in  this  country,  no  great  progress 
has  been  made ;  but  it  seems  probable  that  the  large  govern- 
ment forest  reservations  will  hereafter  be  managed  by  some 
method  of  this  kind. 

"  The  season  of  the  year  best  adapted  to  felling  timber  is 
either  midwinter  or  midsummer.  The  months  of  July  and 
August  are  often  selected,  as  at  those  seasons  the  sound  trees 
can  be  easily  distinguished,  from  the  fact  that  they  remain 
green  while  the  unsound  trees  are  then  turning  yellow. 
Healthy  trees  then  have  tops  in  full  foliage,  and  the  bark  is 
uniform  in  color,  while  unsound  trees  are  irregularly  covered 


184  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

with  leaves  of  varying  color,  having  a  rougher  and  often  a 
loosened  bark,  and  decaying  limbs."  After  felling,  "the  trunk 
should  be  immediately  stripped  of  its  bark,  and  when  heart- 
wood  only  is  wanted,  the  sapwood  removed  as  soon  as  possible." 
This  gives  the  wood  a  chance  to  dry  quickly  and  at  the  same 
time  prevents  deterioration  by  the  action  of  worms  and  decay. 
"  The  bark  is  often  removed  from  trees  in  spring  and  the 
felling  deferred  till  autumn  or  winter."  This,  ordinarily,  can 
be  done  only  with  small  trees,  but  it  is  a  good  course  to  pursue 
when  possible. 

In  the  actual  felling  of  the  trees,  the  method  has  been  from 
time  immemorial  to  use  the  ax,  and  very  small  trees  are  still 
cut  in  this  way ;  for  larger  trees  the  saw  is  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  ax.  The  cut  is  usually  made  high  enough  above 
the  ground  to  avoid  the  very  hard  grain,  the  heavy  sap,  and  in 
some  cases  the  accumulation  of  pitch  at  the  base  of  the  tree. 
For  large  trees  this  height  is  from  six  to  eight  feet  above  the 
ground.  Notches  are  first  cut  on  opposite  sides  of  the  tree, 
into  which  are  inserted  boards  on  which  the  workmen  stand. 
After  the  direction  of  the  fall  is  decided,  an  "undercut"  is 
made  with  the  ax  at  right  angles  to  it  and  on  the  side  next 
to  the  fall,  extending  into  the  tree  a  distance  equal  to  one- 
third  of  its  diameter.  The  saw  is  then  applied  to  the  opposite 
side,  and  when  the  kerf  has  been  advanced  nearly  through  to 
the  undercut,  wedges  are  driven  into  the  saw-cut  so  as  to 
bring  the  tree  down  in  the  proper  place.  In  this  way  the 
possibility  of  doing  injury  to  other  trees  may  be  avoided. 
Machines  have  been  invented  to  take  the  place  of  the  method 
described,  but  they  are  not  in  general  use. 

After  the  tree  has  been  felled  it  is  sawed  into  logs  of  suitable 
length.  Barkers  then  chop  or  strip  away  the  bark,  either  from 
the  whole  surface  of  the  logs  or  from  the  side  on  which  they 
are  to  be  dragged,  and  clear  away  the  underbrush  to  form  a 
way  along  which  they  may  be  moved. 


TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION.  1 85 

288.  Transportation  of  the  logs  to  the  sawmill  is  effected 
in  different  ways,  which  depend  upon  the  locality  and  sur- 
rounding conditions.  In  all  regions  except  the  West,  where 
redwood  and  other  very  large  trees  must  be  handled,  the 
common  practice  is  to  drag  the  logs  by  means  of  horses  or 
oxen  to  the  nearest  stream  or  railroad.  For  this  purpose 
tramways  are  made  by  placing  logs  of  similar  size  parallel  to 
each  other  across  the  way,  at  intervals  of  from  four  to  eight 
feet.  The  logs  are  moved  to  the  tramway  from  the  places 
where  they  have  fallen,  by  rolling  if  the  distance  is  very  short, 
or  if  the  ground  is  inclined  in  the  proper  direction ;  otherwise, 
they  are  pulled  into  position  by  a  horse.  A  number  of  logs 
are  then  fastened  together  by  chains  and  a  team  of  horses 
or  oxen  drags  them  along  the  tramway,  which  leads  either  to  a 
logging  railroad  or  to  a  stream  or  pond.  In  the  latter  case  the 
logs  are  placed  within  ihe  high-water  zone  at  a  time  when  the 
water  is  low,  and  when  the  spring  freshets  cause  them  to  float 
they  are  guided  to  the  sawmill,  which  is  usually  built  near  a  pond 
or  stream.  This  is  the  cheapest  and  most  common  method  of 
transportation.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  and 
in  Canada,  the  common  practice  has  been  to  carry  on  the  log- 
ging in  the  winter  time,  and  in  the  spring  to  float  the  logs  on 
the  water  courses  to  the  mill,  which  does  not  run  during  the 
winter  season.  Here,  instead  of  a  tramway,  an  "ice  run" 
is  made  by  cutting  a  shallow  trench  in  the  ground  and  pour- 
ing water  upon  it.  When  it  is  frozen,  the  logs  are  dragged 
over  it  by  a  team.  This  forms  an  efficient,  and  compared 
with  the  tramway  a  very  inexpensive,  means  of  transporta- 
tion. The  methods  here  described  are  those  common  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  and  in  fact  in  all  places 
where  the  operations  are  not  extensive.  In  the  West,  where 
bulky  material  must  be  handled,  and  the  work  is  pursued  upon 
a  large  scale,  the  tendency  is  to  rely  upon  machinery  for 
moving  the  logs.    Chains  are  secured  to  them  by  means  of 


1 86  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

grappling  hooks,  and  they  are  drawn  from  the  place  of  fall  to  the 
tramway,  or  "  skid-road,"  by  the  action  of  a  "  yarding  "  engine, 
which  is  similar  in  form  to  engines  used  in  hoisting ;  on  the 
tramway  another  engine  pulls  them  to  the  nearest  raihoad  or 
water  way.  Where  the  course  is  down  a  mountain  side,  the  logs 
may  be  slid  down  a  suitably  constructed  chute. 

289.  Sawmills  contain  all  the  machinery  necessary  for 
converting  logs  into  lumber.  As  has  been  stated,  they  are 
usually  situated  upon  the  shore  of  some  stream  or  pond,  in 
order  that  they  may  be  easily  reached  from  the  lumber  camp. 
The  process  of  making  lumber  from  logs  is  effected  by  means 
of  a  saw,  fixed  in  position,  to  which  the  log  is  fed.  The  log 
is  mounted  upon  a  carriage,  which  is  arranged  to  reciprocate, 
advancing  toward  the  saw  for  the  cutting  stroke  and  return- 
ing after  the  cut  is  made.  Various  means  are  employed  for 
propelling  the  carriage,  which  in  a  large  mill  is  made  to  move 
with  great  rapidity.  The  two  classes  of  machinery  used  in 
general  sawmilling  are  the  circular  sawmill  and  the  band  saw- 
mill. The  former  is  the  older  and,  for  general  purposes,  is  still 
more  used.  The  objections  to  the  circular  saw  arise  from  the 
width  of  its  kerf,  which  causes  a  great  waste  of  material,  the 
loss  in  sawdust  for  some  cuts  being  one-fifth  the  whole  amount 
of  wood  used. 

The  band  saw  has  much  to  recommend  it,  especially  in  the 
reduced  width  of  the  kerf,  which,  ordinarily,  is  but  little  more 
than  half  that  of  a  circular  saw  of  the  same  power  and  capacity ; 
hence,  the  amount  of  material  wasted  in  the  form  of  sawdust  is 
less.  The  band  saw  is  more  expensive  and  not  so  portable  as 
the  circular  saw,  and  is  therefore  more  suitable  for  large  and 
permanent  establishments. 

290.  The  Process  of  Sawing.  — The  log  is  drawn  from  the 
mill  pond  by  means  of  a  carrier,  or  log  jack,  operated  by  the 
power  of  the  mill.    Arriving  at  the  proper  point,  by  suitable 


TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION.  1 87 

mechanism  the  log  is  rolled  upon  skids  in  a  position  near  the 
carriage,  and  then  by  the  movement  of  a  single  lever  is  thrown 
upon  the  carriage  and  fastened.  As  the  carriage  goes  forward 
toward  the  saw,  the  first  outside  piece,  or  slab,  is  cut.  On  the 
return  of  the  carriage,  mechanism  operates  to  move  it  sidewise 
by  an  amount  sufficient  to  allow  the  log  to  clear  the  saw.  The 
log  is  turned  a  quarter  of  a  revolution,  after  which  another 
slab  is  cut.  In  this  way  four  slabs  are  taken  off,  leaving  the 
log  nearly  square  in  section,  though  the  thickness  of  the  slabs 
is  not  sufficient  to  allow  the  meeting  of  the  plane  surfaces  pro- 
duced by  their  removal.  The  squared  log  is  then  sawed  into 
planks  or  boards.  From  the  carriage,  these  land  on  revolving 
rolls,  which  carry  them  to  the  ^'  edger,"  in  which  they  are 
trimmed  so  as  to  give  the  widest  possible  planks  with  parallel 
edges.  From  the  edger,  the  lumber  moves  on  rollers  or  chain 
conveyors  to  the  "  trimmer,"  where  it  is  made  to  pass  saws 
which  are  set  to  cut  the  pieces  to  standard  lengths.  It  is  then 
thrown  on  a  platform,  from  which  it  is  trucked  to  the  yards  for 
storage  or  to  the  cars  for  shipment. 

When  the  slabs  leave  the  saw  they  are  conveyed  by  revolv- 
ing rolls  to  the  ''  slasher";  in  this  machine  they  are  cut  into 
lengths,  usually  of  four  feet,  conveyed  to  the  lath  machine, 
sawed  up  into  laths,  and  bound  into  bundles.  All  short  pieces 
are  sorted  by  hand,  and  some  go  to  the  shingle  machine, 
while  the  rest  are  converted  into  stove  wood.  The  sawdust 
and  fine  refuse  help  feed  the  furnaces  of  the  mill,  and  the 
coarse  stuff  that  cannot  be  used,  even  for  fuel,  is  burned  to 
get  it  out  of  the  way. 

291.  Milling. — The  processes  of  the  sawmill  are  followed 
by  those  of  the  finishing  mill,  in  which  the  rough-sawed  lum- 
ber is  planed  to  a  smooth  surface  and  is  matched,  beaded,  or 
molded,  to  make  it  serviceable  for  floors,  wainscoting,  and 
inside    finish.     Because    of    the   prominence    of    the    planing 


1 88  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

machine  in  these  mills,  such  establishments  are  often  called 
planing  mills.  Planing  mills  may  be  combined  with  the  saw- 
mills, or  located  at  any  convenient  point  between  them  and 
the  centers  where  lumber  is  consumed.  As  finished  lumber 
is  lighter  and  less  bulky  than  the  rough-sawed,  the  operation 
of  a  finishing  mill  in  connection  with  the  sawmill  effects  a 
saving  in  freight  when  the  lumber  is  shipped.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  the  planing  mill  usually  deals  with  seasoned  lumber, 
and  as  better  judgment  as  to  finishing  can  be  exercised  when 
the  exact  nature  of  the  requirements  is  known,  it  is  often  most 
convenient  to  have  the  finishing  mill  at  the  point  of  consump- 
tion. It  is  for  this  reason  that  planing  mills  are  located  in  cities 
which  are  far  distant  from  sawmills. 

The  machines  of  the  finishing  mill  are  numerous.  There 
are  planers  which  dress  the  rough  plank  to  a  smooth  surface 
and  to  a  uniform  thickness ;  matching  machines  which  cut 
the  tongue  and  groove  on  the  edges  of  boards  which  are  to 
be  used  for  flooring  and  similar  work ;  molding  machines  for 
giving  finish  to  the  edges  of  planks  or  for  producing  strips  of 
curved  section ;  saws  for  ripping  and  saws  for  cross-cutting, 
and  a  variety  of  other  and  more  highly  specialized  machines, 
such  as  those  for  boring,  paneling,  and  sand-papering.  A  full 
description  of  these  does  not  fall  within  the  purpose  of  this 
discussion,  but  such  machinery  is  so  common  that  most  stu- 
dents can  easily  gain  an  opportunity  to  inspect  its  action. 

292.  Water  in  Timber.  — As  has  been  explained,  wood  is 
composed  of  cells  of  different  forms  and  of  different  functions 
with  reference  to  the  life  of  the  tree.  These  contain  more  or  less 
water,  which  may  occur  in  three  conditions:  (i)  it  forms  the 
greater  part  of  the  contents  of  the  living  cells  ;  (2)  it  saturates 
the  walls  of  all  cells ;  and  (3)  it  partly  fills  the  cavities  of  the 
lifeless  cells,  fibers,  and  vessels.  In  some  cases  the  water  in 
growing  timber  makes  more  than  half  the  weight  of  the  wood. 


TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION.         1 89 

Sapvvood  contains  more  water  than  heartwood  ;  hence  there 
is  more  water  in  the  upper  portion  of  a  tree  trunk  than  in  its 
lower  portion,  more  in  limbs  than  in  trunk,  and  most  in  the 
roots.  Different  trees  of  the  same  kind  differ  in  the  amount 
of  water  they  contain,  thrifty  trees  having  more  than  stunted 
ones,  and  young  ones  more  than  old,  while  the  moisture  in 
the  wood  of  all  trees  varies  with  the  season  of  the  year.  The 
popular  idea  that  trees  contain  more  water  in  summer  than  in 
winter,  however,  is  not  always  correct,  tests  recently  made  by 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Forestry  showing,  that  the  greatest 
weight  of  certain  trees  is  in  the  winter. 

293.  The  Process  of  Seasoning  consists  in  driving  out  of 
green  wood,  either  by  natural  or  artificial  means,  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  water  contained  in  the  walls  an4  cavities 
of  its  cells.  Seasoning  thins  the  walls  of  the  cells  and  makes 
the  wood  appear  more  porous.  The  rate  at  which  it  will  sea- 
son, or  dry,  depends  upon  the  kind  of  timber,  the  size  of  the 
piece,  the  part  of  the  trunk  from  which  it  is  taken,  and 
the  character  of  its  exposure  to  drying  influences ;  pine,  for 
example,  dries  faster  than  oak,  small  boards  faster  than  large 
ones,  and  sapwood  faster  than  heartwood. 

Wood  newly  cut  from  a  living  tree,  when  exposed  to  ordi- 
nary atmospheric  conditions,  gradually  dries,  and  in  so  doing 
changes  its  weight  and  dimensions.  Green  lumber,  therefore, 
is  unstable  with  reference  to  these  qualities  and  is  not  service- 
able for  many  purposes  until  it  has  been  seasoned.  All  lumber 
designed  for  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  cabinetwork,  and 
machinery  should  be  thoroughly  seasoned  before  it  is  used. 

The  method  employed  in  seasoning  must  be  such  that  the 
timber  will  not  only  dry,  but  will  also  be  preserved  from  injury 
during  the  process.  Some  of  the  harmful  effects  due  to 
improper  ways  of  seasoning  are  the  formation  of  cracks,  or 
"  checking,"  and  a  loss  of  strength  caused  by  injury  to  the 
wood  structure ;  these  must  be  taken  into  account  in  deciding 


190 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


upon  the  method  to  be  used.  Those  most  common  are  air 
seasoning,  steam  seasoning,  water  seasoning,  boihng  in  Oil, 
and  kiln-drying. 

294.  Air  Seasoning  is  the  cheapest  and  probably  the  best  of 
the  methods  mentioned,  although  it  is  slow  and  must  be  care- 
fully conducted  or  there  will  be  mucK  injury  by  decay  and  by 


checking.  It  consists  in  piling  the  lumber  out  of  doors  where 
the  air  may  circulate  freely  about  it.  Under  these  conditions 
the  moisture  is  given  off  and  the  solid  constituents  of  the  sap 
gradually  harden  and  become  incapable  of  further  change ; 
the  lumber  is  then  regarded  as  seasoned.  Air  drying  demands 
the  exercise  of  considerable  care.  If  green  lumber  is  piled 
without  proper  air  spaces,  it  is  sure  to  decay;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  if  exposed  to  sun  and  wind,  the  moisture  in  the 
outer  portions  of  each  piece  thus  exposed  evaporates  faster 


TIMBER    AND    ITS    PREPARATION.  I9I 

than  that  in  the  inner  portions,  and  that  in  the  ends  faster 
than  that  at  the  middle,  with  the  result  that  shrinkage  proceeds 
unequally  and  cracks  are  formed.  Both  decay  and  checking 
may  be  prevented  by  piling  the  timber  properly  and  protect- 
ing it  from  the  sun  and  rain.  It  should  be  so  placed  that  the 
air  may  circulate  freely,  not  only  on  all  sides  of  the  piles  but 
also  about  each  piece.  Fig.  315  shows  a  pile  of  railroad  ties 
as  arranged  for  seasoning.  Sawed  lumber  may  be  piled  in  a 
similar  way,  and  with  material  of  uniform  dimensions  the  pile 
may  be  carried  to  a  considerable  height.  The  time  required 
to  air-dry  lumber  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  pieces,  a  longer 
time  being  allowed  for  large  sticks  than  for  smaller  ones. 
Sometimes  lumber  which  has  been  piled  but  a  few  months  is 
regarded  as  seasoned,  and  for  some  purposes  it  may  be  safely 
used,  but  the  drying  is  only  partial.  For  complete  air-drying 
from  two  to  four  years  are  required. 

295.  Steam  Drying  is  employed  when  it  is  desired  to 
season  boards  quickly,  or  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  soften 
wood  in  large  pieces  for  the  purpose  of  bending  it,  as,  for 
instancy,  in  shipbuilding  ^nd  furniture  making.  As  a  season- 
ing process  it  is  objectionable,  because  the  high  temperature 
required  is  likely  to  injure  the  wood  structure  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  decrease  the  strength  of  the  niaterial.  The  process  con- 
sists in  exposing  thq  wpod  to  an  atmosphere  of  steam  under 
considerable  pressure.  The  steam  enters  the  cells  of  the  wood 
and  dissolves  the  sap,  leaving  water  in  its  place ;  when  the 
water  is  dried  out,  the  wood  is  left  well  seasoned.  The  soften- 
ing of  the  fibers  by  the  steam  during  this  process,  and  the 
uniform  conditions  of  heat  overcome  all  tendency  toward 
checking,  which  is  so  likely  to  occur  in  air  seasoning.  The 
steaming  process  occupies  but  a  few  hours; 

296.  Watef  Seasoning  is  accomplished  by  allowing  the  tim- 
ber to  remain  for  a  considerable  time  in  water.    By  this  means 


192  BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 

the  sap  is  dissolved  away  and  replaced  by  water,  which  evapo- 
rates rapidly  when  the  timber  is  piled  for  drying.  Timber  sea- 
soned in  this  way  usually  shrinks  uniformly,  exhibiting  but  slight 
disposition  to  check.  Logs  which  are  designed  for  the  spars  of 
ships  are  invariably  water-seasoned.  They  are  usually  stored 
in  water,  with  the  bark  on,  for  many  months,  and  are  thus  kept 
in  a  soft  and  workable  condition  until  such  time  as  they  may 
be  removed  for  finishing. 

297,  Kiln  Drying  is  a  common  method  of  artificial  season- 
ing. It  requires  far  less  time  than  the  processes  already  men- 
tioned, and,  with  the  exception  of  air-drying,  is  the  one  to 
which  most  lumber  is  subjected.  Dry-kilns  are  t3  be  found  in 
connection  with  nearly  all  sawmills  and  planing  mills,  and 
also  with  those  manufacturing  establishments  which  consume 
large  quantities  of  wood,  such  as  furniture  and  car  factories. 
Air-seasoned  lumber,  designed  for  inside  finish,  when  received 
at  the  sawmill  is  often  piled  for  a  few  days  in  the  kiln  to  remove 
moisture  which  it  may  have  gathered  from  the  atmosphere. 

298.  Kilns,  of  which  there  are  many  forms,  are  large 
structures  fitted  with  machinery  for  circulating  dry,  hot  air 
about  the  lumber  that  is  placed  in  them.  The  lumber  is  piled 
upon  light  trucks,  which  are  run  into  the  kiln  upon  lines  of 
track.  The  doors  are  then  closed  and  steam  is  turned  into 
the  coils  of  pipe  by  which  the  air  is  heated.  Moisture-laden 
air  escapes  through  a  chimney  and  is  replaced  by  dry  air  taken 
in  below  the  pipes.  In  operation,  the  green  lumber  is  intro- 
duced into  that  end  of  the  kiln  from  which  the  moist  and 
heated  air  is  discharged,  and  cars  containing  the  seasoned 
lumber  are  removed  from  the  other.  By  this  arrangement  the 
cars  progress  through  the  kiln,  the  dryest  air  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  dryest  lumber,  and  that  which  is  most  heavily 
laden  with  moisture,  with  the  greenest  lumber.    This  course 


TIMBER    AND    ITS    PREPARATION.  I93 

prevents  too  great  rapidity  in  the  process  of  seasoning.  For 
seasoning  green  lumber,  kilns  require  about  one  week  for  each 
one-inch  thickness  of  material.  Lumber  seasoned  by  air-drying, 
and  designed  for  inside  work,  can  be  made  sufficiently  dry  to 
avoid  all  chance  of  further  shrinkage,  if  placed  in  the  kiln  from 
forty  to  sixty  hours  for  each  inch  in  thickness.  In  general,  more 
time  is  required  for  hard  woods  than  for  soft,  and,  usually,  the 
former  must  be  seasoned  at  lower  temperatures  than  those  which 
may  be  employed  with  the  latter.  In  any  case,  the  temperature 
is  limited  by  the  tendency  of  the  wood  to  check;  for  if  the 
drying  process  is  forced  too  rapidly,  the  lumber  will  be  injured. 

299.  Shrinkage  in  timber  occurs  whenever  it  loses  mois- 
ture. In  the  process  of  seasoning,  shrinkage  may  reduce  the 
width  and  thickness  of  a  timber  fully  eight  per  cent,  but  it  has 
little  effect  on  its  length.  Wood  cannot  be  seasoned  so  well 
that  it  will  not  shrink  whenever  the  surrounding  dryness  is 
increased.  It  also  has  a  tendency  to  shrink  after  having  its 
surface  removed,  as  in  finishing  by  use  of  a  plane.  This  is  due 
to  the  reopening  of  the  pores,  which  in  the  fibers  of  the  old 
surface  had  become  closed  by  contraction;  in  this  way  new 
passages  are  furnished  for  the  escape  of  moisture. 

300.  Swelling  occurs  in  timber  whenever  it  absorbs  mois- 
ture. Most  woods  give  up  moisture  more  readily  than  they 
receive  it ;  therefore,  a  timber  is  less  likely  to  swell  when 
transferred  from  a  dry  atmosphere  to  a  moist  one  than  to 
shrink  when  the  conditions  are  reversed.  A  slight  variation, 
however,  in  the  amount  of  surrounding  moisture  is  sufficient 
to  produce  a  perceptible  change  in  the  dimensions  of  a  piece 
of  wood.  Paint  upon  all  exposed  surfaces  is  some  protection 
against  such  changes,  but  it  will  not  serve  entirely  to  suppress 
them.  As  a  rule,  the  softer  a  wood  is,  the  more  readily  it 
shrinks  and  swells. 


194 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


301.  Warping  in  wood  is  a  change  of  form  resulting  from 
unequal  shrinkage  or  swelling.  In  Fig.  316,  which  represents 
the  end  of  a  log,  it  will  be  seen  that,  besides  the  Hues  defining 
the  annual  rings,  there  are  others  extending  outward  from  the 
center  in  all  directions ;  these  have  already  been  defined  as 
medullary  rays.  In  some  woods  they  are  hardly  discernible ; 
in  others  they  distinctly  mark  the  cross-section  of  the  timber, 
and  they  are  not  very  much  shortened  by  shrinkage.  In  the 
process  of  seasoning,  the  bond  between  the  rays  and  the  wood 
fibers  next  them  becomes  weakened,  and  therefore,  as  shrink- 
age occurs  along  the  circumference  of  the  annual  rings,  there 
is  a  tendency  to  cleavage  on  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  rings, 


K'ig.  316 


IPig.  3ir 


Fig.  318 


—  naturally  the  lines  of  least  resistance,  i.e.  the  medullary  rays. 
If  the  seasoning  is  carefully  done,  no  checks  will  appear,  but 
the  tendency  is  always  apparent.  For  example,  if  a  log  is  cut 
longitudinally  into  five  ]:4eces,  the  middle  piece  will,  by  the 
contraction  of  the  annual  rings  in  shrinkage,  become  thinner 
at  the  edges  than  at  the  center,  as  shown  by  Fig.  317.  The 
other  four  pieces  will  warp  as  shown,  the  surface  of  each  piece 
which  in  the  log  was  nearest  the  center  becoming  the  convex 
side  after  shrinkage.  The  shrinkage  of  a  square  joist  will  vary 
according  to  its  position  in  the  log  relative  to  the  heart,  as 
indicated  by  Fig.  318.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the  cross- 
section  of  a  timber,  changes  resulting  from  shrinkage  can  be 
foretold  whenever  the  character  of  the  end  grain  can  be 
determined. 


TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION.  1 95 

Timbers  also  warp  in  the  direction  of  their  length.  When 
not  due  to  the  subjection  of  one  part  to  dryness  or  dampness, 
to  the  exclusion  of  other  parts,  this  can  be  traced  to  uneven- 
ness  in  the  grain,  which  exposes  a  greater  number  of  fiber 
ends  in  one  part  of  a  surface  than  in  another.  The  more  fiber 
ends  there  are  on  a  surface,  the  more  readily  moisture  will 
pass  into  or  out  of  the  wood,  and  the  more  pronounced 
will  be  the  local  shrinkage  or  swelling,  and  consequent  warp- 
ing. For  example,  suppose  Fig.  319  to  represent  the  edge  of 
a  board  having  the  grain  as 

n.-r      .  -if  Fig.  3 10 

shown.     Moisture  will  escape  jj  ^ 

most  readily  from  the  surfaces   ^,r^^|j:" ~ - --'-^- - , ._ .'. .. :^-r7^:^ 

marked  A  and  A',    The  con-   . v-^— — '  ^; ' ' 

traction  of  the  surfaces  A  and 

A'  will  force  the  board  into  the  shape  shown  by  the  dotted 
line.  The  most  fruitful  cause  of  warping,  however,  is  unequal 
exposure.  One  side  of  a  board  may  be  exposed  to  the  sun 
while  the  other  is  not ;  the  side  exposed  will  be  found  concave 
both  in  length  and  breadth.  Heat  from  a  stove  or  dampness 
from  the  ground  are  common  causes  of  warping.  If  a  board 
newly  planed  on  all  its  faces  is  left  flat  on  the  bench,  it  will 
after  a  time  be  found  concave  in  its  upper  surface,  —  a  result 
due  to  the  greater  exposure,  of  the  upper  surface  as  compared 
with  the  lower,  which  remained  in  contact  with  the  bench. 
A  piece  which  has  reasonably  straight  grain,  and  which  has 
been  planed  all  over,  should  be  left  on  its  edge  or  end. 
Pieces  of  irregular  form,  that  are  required  to  be  made  into 
shape  accurately,  are  best  prepared  when  roughly  cut  nearly  to 
the  required  dimensions,  and  allowed  ample  time  to  shrink  and 
warp  before  being  finished  exactly  to  size.    " 

302.  Decay  in  Wood  is  caused  by  the  growth  upon  it  of 
fungi,  which  send  down  little  food-seeking  threads  in  all  direc- 
tions into  the  wood,  consuming  the  cell  walls  and  their  contents. 


196  BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 

and  thus  producing  a  disintegration  and  change  of  structure 
which  is  called  rot,  or  decay.  In  order  to  grow,  the  fungi 
must  have  air,  organic  food  materials,  heat,  and  abundance  of 
moisture ;  the  moisture  must  not  amount  to  immersion,  how- 
ever, for  too  much  water  excludes  the  air  and  the  fungi  cannot 
live  for  want  of  oxygen.  Fungus  growth  is  checked  by  cold  and 
killed  by  temperatures  above  150°  F.,  as  well  as  by  the  applica- 
tion of  certain  chemicals  to  the  wood.  Perfectly  seasoned 
wood  is  not  likely  to  rot,  especially  if  it  has  good  ventilation 
and  its  surfaces"  of  contact  are  well  protected. 

303.  Timber  Preservation  is  effected  by  filling  the  pores 
with  some  fluid  which  destroys  and  prevents  fung)is  growth,  and 
thus  protects  the  wood  from  decay.  Some  woods,  such  as  oak, 
resist  the  attacks  of  fungi,  and  therefore  do  not  rot  quickly  even 
under  unfavorable  conditions.  For  this  reason,  onl  y  woods  of  this 
kind  were  formerly  used  in  work  which  was  exposed  to  moisture, 
as  railway  ties,  bridge  timbers,  and  fence  posts.  Of  late,  how- 
ever, such  timber  has  become  very  scarce  and  costly,  and  much 
attention  is  now  given  to  artificial  methods  of  preservation  which 
will  give  durability  to  cheaper  and  otherwise  inferior  timber. 

By  "  inferior  timber "  is  meant  those  soft,  porous  woods 
which  are  especially  liable  to  decay.  By  treating  with  a  pre- 
servative, however,  they  are  rendered  durable,  and  red  oak  may 
thus  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  white  oak,  and  loblolly  pine, 
fir,  and  hemlock  may  be  used  for  pine  in  places  where  resist- 
ance to  decay  is  the  chief  requirement.  The  preservative  treat- 
ment never  increases  the  strength  of  a  timber  or  its  resistance 
to  abrasion,  but,  on  the  contrary,  slightly  weakens  it ;  for  many 
purposes,  however,  the  ultimate  strength  of  timber  is  of  far  less 
importance  than  its  durability.  The  requisite  property  of  the 
preserving  fluid  is  that  it  will  destroy  and  prevent  the  growth 
of  fungi,  and  for  this  purpose  corrosive  sublimate,  tar  oil,  creo- 
sote, and  zinc  chloral  are  most  used. 


TIMBER  AND  ITS  PREPARATION.  I97 

The  manner  of  applying  the  fluid  depends  upon  the  quantity 
of  wood  to  be  treated.  If  the  quantity  is  small,  the  preserva- 
tive may  be  applied  with  a  brush,  or  the  wood  may  be  dipped 
into  it.  If  large  quantities  of  lumber  are  to  be  treated,  exten- 
sive plants  are  equipped  for  doing  the  work.  The  purpose  in 
all  cases  is  to  fill  the  pores  of  the  wood  with  the  fluid.  As  a 
first  step,  the  wood  must  be  thoroughly  seasoned  in  order  that 
its  porosity  and  permeability  may  be  as  high  as  possible.  If 
the  wood  is  absolutely  dry,  it  will  take  up  considerable  quanti- 
ties of  the  preservative,  though  a  high  degree  of  penetration 
is  not  often  secured  without  the  use  of  pressure.  A  typical 
process  is  described  in  the  next  paragraph. 

304.  Creosotingf.  —  The  apparatus  employed  consists  of  one 
or  more  heavy  metallic  cylinders  having  end  doors  which  open 
to  the  full  size  of  the  cross-section  of  the  cylinder,  and  which 
are  made  to  close  steam-tight.  A  track  extends  through  the 
cylinder,  upon  which  runs  a  truck  or  car  carrying  the  material 
to  be  treated.  Pumps  and  other  accessory  apparatus  are  in 
pipe  connection  with  the  cylinder. 

The  timber  to  be  treated  is  loaded  on  a  truck  and  run  into 
the  cylinder,  after  which  the  doors  are  securely  closed.  Steam 
under  considerable  pressure  is  then  admitted  to  the  cylinder, 
and  this  heats  the  timber  and  supplies  moisture  to  fill  the 
pores  of  the  wood  and  pressure  to  force  it  in,  thus  augmenting 
its  porosity.  This  accomplished,  the  steam  is  shut  off  and  a 
vacuum  pump  is  employed  to  reduce  the  pressure  within  the 
cyHnder  to  as  low  a  point  as  possible,  with  the  result  that  the 
moisture  forced  into  the  wood,  having  served  its  purpose  in 
opening  the  pores,  is  now  drawn  out.  The  liquid  creosote  is 
then  introduced  into  the  cylinder  and  under  an  increase  of 
pressure  the  timber  expands  and  the  liquid  penetrates  far 
beyond  the  surface  of  the  material.  Pieces  which  are  not  more 
than  eight  or  ten  inches  across  are  penetrated  to  their  center. 


198  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

After  the  pressure  is  withdrawn,  the  surphis  Uquid  is  drawn  off, 
the  doors  are  opened,  and  the  wood  is  removed.  The  process 
as  described  is  subject  to  several  modifications. 

It  is  usually  unnecessary  to  treat  wood  which  is  designed 
for  the  interior  of  buildings,  the  process  being  chiefly  valuable 
for  such  materials  as  come  in  contact  with  the  ground  or  are 
used  about  the  water. 


STRENGTH   OF  TIMBER. 

305.  The  Strength  of  Timber  is  measured  by  its  resistance 
to  yielding  under  the  influence  of  external  force  applied  in 
any  form.  Timbers  may  be  so  located  with  reference  to  the 
load  they  sustain  as  to  be  strained  in  tension,  or  in  compres- 
sion, or  in  shear,  or  by  bending;  and  in  each  case  the  maxi- 
mum resistance  which  can  be  offered  by  a  piece  of  wood  will 
have  a  different  value.  The  maximum  resistance  also  depends 
upon  the  direction  of  the  grain  relative  to  the  direction  in 
which  the  load  is  applied.  In  general,  knotty  and  cross-grained 
wood  is  not  so  strong  as  clear  and  straight-grained  pieces  of 
the  same  material.  Large  timbers  usually  contain  more  imper- 
fections in  grain  than  small  ones  which  might  be  cut  from  the 
larger  bulk,  and,  hence,  large  timbers  are  likely  to  be  relatively 
weaker  than  small  ones.  In  general,  the  heavier  woods  are 
the  stronger. 

306.  Strength  in  Tension  is  measured  by  the  resistance 
which  is  offered  to  a  force  drawing  in  the  direction  of  length. 
In  a  piece  of  wood,  this  is  the  sum  of  the  resistances  of  all  the 
separate  fibers  making  up  the  cross-section.  Long-leaved,  yel- 
low pine  and  Washington  fir  will  withstand  about  12,000 
pounds  for  each  square  inch  of  cross-section,  while  oak,  Cana- 
dian white  pine,  and  red  fir  withstand  about  10,000  pounds, 
and  the  more  common  woods,  such  as  white  pine,  Norway 


TIMBER    AN13     ITS    PREPARATION.  I99 

pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  cypress,  and  chestnut,  from  6000  to 
9000  pounds.  These  values  are  remarkably  large  when  one 
considers  the  lightness  of  the  materials  involved. 

307.  Strength  in  Compression  is  the  resistance  offered  to 
a  force  which  tends  to  reduce  the  dimension  of  a  material 
in  the  direction  in  which  the  force  is  applied.  Columns  which 
stand  upon  a  foundation  or  base  of  any  sort,  and  bear  a  load 
upon  the  top,  are  in  compression.  In  this  case  the  individual 
fibers  act  as  so  many  hollow  columns  firmly  bound  together. 
Failure  under  compression  occurs  when  the  fibers,  by  sepa- 
rating into  small  bodies  and  sliding  over  each  other,  cease  to 
act  as  a  solid  mass.  This  action  is  obviously  assisted  by  the 
presence  of  the  smallest  knot  or  the  slightest  irregularity  in 
grain.  When  tested  in  the  form  of  short  columns  in  which  the 
grain  runs  lengthwise,  the  common  woods  withstand  loads  in 
compression  of  from  5000  to  8000  pounds  per  square  inch  of 
cross-section. 

308.  Strength  in  Shear.  —  A  pin  which  holds  a  tenon  in 
its  mortise  (Fig.  191)  must  resist  shear  when  a  force  is  applied 
to  draw  the  tenon  out  of  the  mortise.  Similarly,  that  portion 
of  the  tenon  which  is  immediately  beyond  the  pin  is,  under 
the  condition  stated,  in  shear.  The  shear  upon  the  pin  is 
across  the  grain,  while  that  upon  the  tenon  is  with  the  grain. 
Again,  in  the  case  cited,  the  pin  is  said  to  be  in  double  shear, 
since  in  giving  way  it  would  need  to  yield  at  two  points  in 
its  length,  while  the  tenon  is  in  single  shear.  The  resistance 
of  wood  to  shear  is  much  less  than  that  to  tension  or  com- 
pression. Assuming  the  stress  to  fall  on  a  piece  one  square 
inch  in  section,  the  resistance  to  shear  is  greatest  in  white 
oak,  for  which  the  value  across  the  grain  is  2000  pounds  and 
with  the  grain  about  800  pounds.  In  other  woods  the  resist- 
ance to  shear  across  the  grain  is  from  600  to  1400  pounds, 
and  with  the  grain  from  350  to  600  pounds. 


200  BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 

309.  Strength  under  Transverse  Loads  is  shown  by  resist- 
ance to  forces  which  tend  to  bend  the  piece.  Closely  allied 
to  the  question  of  strength  under  the  conditions  stated,  is  that 
of  stiffness^  which  is  often  quite  as  important  as  that  of  strength. 
A  green  stick  is  only  about  two-thirds  as  stiff  as  one  that  is 
dry.  Heavy  pine  is  stiffer  than  light  pine.  Wood  from  the 
butt  of  a  tree  is  usually  stiffer  than  that  from  the  upper  part 
of  the  trunk.  In  all  full-grown  pine  trees  the  heartwood  is 
stiffer  than  the  sapwood,  but  in  young  pines,  and  also  in 
young,  second-growth  hard  woods,  the  sapwood  is  stiffer.  It 
is  the  sapwood  of  second-growth  hickory  that  is  prized  for 
carriage  spokes  and  tool  handles.  The  load  which  can  be  with- 
stood by  a  timber  subjected  to  a  bending  force  varies  directly 
as  its  width,  as  the  square  of  its  depth,  and  inversely  as  the 
length  of  the  span.  For  example,  a  timber  5  inches  deep 
and  4  inches  wide  is  twice  as  strong  as  one  which  is  5  inches 
deep  and  2  inches  wide  ;  while  one  which  is  2  inches  wide  and 
10  inches  deep  is  four  times  as  strong  as  one  which  is  2  inches 
wide  and  5  inches  deep.  Again,  a  timber  which  rests  on  sup- 
ports 16  feet  apart  will  carry  but  half  the  load  which  may  be 
sustained  by  a  similar  timber  which  rests  on  supports  8  feet 
apart.  A  consideration  of  numerical  values  is  difftcult  unless 
aided  by  mathematical  preparation.  Students  who  are  inter- 
ested should  seek  to  master  the  theory  of  beams  as  presented 
in  texts  dealing  with  the  strength  of  materials. 


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PHYSICAL  SCS.LIBIWl[Y 


LIBRARY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  DAVIS 

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